Psychology
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Psychology (from
Greek ψῡχή, psȳkhē, "breath, life, soul"; and -λογία,
-logia) is an
academic and
applied discipline involving the
scientific study of
mental functions and
behavior. Psychologists study such phenomena as
perception,
cognition,
emotion,
personality,
behavior, and
interpersonal relationships. Psychology also refers to the application of such
knowledge to various spheres of
human activity, including issues related to everyday life (e.g. family,
education, and employment) and the
treatment of
mental health problems. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of these functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the underlying
physiological and
neurological processes. Psychology includes many sub-fields of study and applications concerned with such areas as
human development,
sports,
health,
industry,
media, and
law.
History
Main article:
History of psychologyAuguste Rodin's The Thinker.
[
edit] Philosophical and scientific roots
The study of psychology in
philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of
Egypt,
Greece, China, and
India. Psychology began adopting a more
clinical[1] and
experimental[2] approach under medieval
Muslim psychologists and
physicians, who built
psychiatric hospitals for such purposes.
[3]Though the use of psychological
experimentation dates back to
Alhazen's Book of Optics in 1021,
[2][4] psychology as an independent experimental field of study began in 1879, when
Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research at
Leipzig University in Germany, for which Wundt is known as the "father of psychology".
[5] The year 1879 is thus sometimes regarded as the "birthdate" of psychology. The American philosopher
William James published his seminal book,
Principles of Psychology,
[6] in 1890, while laying the foundations for many of the questions that
psychologists would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), a pioneer in the experimental study of
memory at the
University of Berlin; and the Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who investigated the
learning process now referred to as
classical conditioning.
Psychoanalysis
Main article:
PsychoanalysisFrom the 1890s until his death in 1939, the
Austrian physician
Sigmund Freud developed a method of
psychotherapy known as
psychoanalysis. Freud was a neurologist whose understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods,
introspection and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and
psychopathology. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as
sexuality,
repression, and the
unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered
taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. While Freud is perhaps best known for his tripartite model of the mind, consisting of the
id,
ego, and
superego, and his theories about the
Oedipus complex, his most lasting legacy may be not the content of his theories but his clinical innovations, such as the method of
free association and a clinical interest in dreams. Freud also had a significant influence on
Carl Jung, whose
analytical psychology became an alternative form of
depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers of the mid-twentieth century included
Erik Erickson,
Anna Freud,
Melanie Klein,
D.W. Winnicott,
Karen Horney,
Erich Fromm, and
John Bowlby.
Philosopher
Karl Popper argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in
untestable form.
[7] Psychology departments in American universities today are scientifically oriented, and Freudian theory has been marginalized, being regarded instead as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact, acccording to a recent
APA study.
[8]Contemporary psychoanalysis comprises diverse schools of thought, including ego psychology, object relations, interpersonal, Lacanian, and relational psychoanalysis. Modification of Jung's theories has led to the
archetypal and
process-oriented schools of psychological thought.
Behaviorism
Main article:
BehaviorismFounded by
John B. Watson and embraced and extended by
Edward Thorndike,
Clark L. Hull,
Edward C. Tolman, and later
B.F. Skinner. Founders of early psychology in the late 19th and early part of the 20th century, Wilhelm Wundt and William James, studied the mind via
introspection. During the early decades of the 20th century
behaviorism gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. The behaviorists (e.g. Watson) argued the contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should only be concerned with the study of observable behavior. There was no consideration of the internal representation or the mind. The rise of behaviorism was partly due to the success of laboratory based animal experimentation and partly in reaction to Freudian
psychodynamics which tended to rely on case studies and clinical experience. Freud's theories and practice focused on the resolution unconscious conflict often arising from childhood experiences to treat psychological trauma and psychosis. However, it was argued that Freud's theories were difficult to test empirically.
Behaviorism differs from other perspectives in a number of ways. Behaviorists focus on behavior-environment relations and analyze overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment
[9]. Behaviorists do not reject the study of covert or private events (e.g., dreaming). What behaviorists reject is an autonomous causal entity inside the organism that causes overt (e.g., walking, talking) or covert (e.g., dreaming, imagining) behavior. Concepts such as "mind" or "consciousness" are not used by behaviorists because such terms do not describe actual psychological events (such as imagining) but are used as explanatory entities hidden somewhere in the organism. By contrast, behaviorism treats private events as behavior, and analyzes them in the same way as overt behavior (hence the name "behaviorism"). Behavior refers to the concrete events of the organism, overt or private.
Linguist
Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally.
[10] But Skinner's behaviorism has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.
[10] The ascendancy of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to the next dominant paradigm, cognitive approaches.
[11]Humanism and existentialism
Main article:
Humanistic psychologyHumanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. By using
phenomenology,
intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to glimpse the whole person--not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.
[12] Humanism focuses on uniquely human issues and fundamental issues of life, such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. There are several factors which distinguish the Humanistic Approach from other approaches within psychology, including the emphasis on subjective meaning, a rejection of determinism, and a concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were
Abraham Maslow who formulated a
hierarchy of human needs,
Carl Rogers who created and developed
Client-centered therapy, and
Fritz Perls who helped create and develop
Gestalt therapy. It became so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology (along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis).
[13]Influenced largely by the work of German philosopher
Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher
Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically-trained
Rollo May developed an
existential breed of psychology in the 1950s and 1960s. Existential psychologists argued that people must come to terms with their mortality and that, in so doing, people will be obligated to accept that they are free—that they possess
free will and are at liberty to defy expectations and conventions in order to forge their own, meaningful paths through life. May believed that an important element of the meaning-making process is the search for
myths, or narrative patterns into which the individual may fit.
[14]From the existential perspective, not only does the quest for meaning follow from an acceptance of mortality, but the attainment of meaning can overshadow the prospect of death. As existential psychiatrist and
Holocaust survivor
Viktor Frankl observed,
[15]We who lived in concentration camps can remember the men who walked through the huts comforting others, giving away their last piece of bread. They may have been few in number, but they offer sufficient proof that everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms—to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one's own way.
[16]In addition to May and Frankl, psychoanalyst
Ludwig Binswanger and psychologist
George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.
[17]Both existential and humanistic psychologists argue that people should strive to reach their full potential, but only humanistic psychologists believe that this striving is innate. For existential psychologists, the striving only follows an anxiety-producing contemplation of mortality, freedom, and responsibility.
[18]
