20.1
1.SLIP
2. What is the cause of lexical bias?
(1) Feedback of activation between phonemes and words
(2) Self-monitoring of inner speech rejeting and correcting non-words more often than real words
3. Researchers in the feedback camp
4. Researchers in the self-monitoring camp
5. The aim of this chapter :
(1) Problems and suggestions
(2) Present a new view
(3) Re-analysis of some data
2008年6月26日 星期四
Part V: Phonotactic and Phonological Knowledge
19. What’s in CVC-like Thing? ……….Natural Language Processing Enabling machines to understand and respond to what people mean, so they can interact with a computer naturally – without having to adapt their behavior to a computer's limitations.
Resolving ambiguities in written and spoken language requires analyzing grammar, concepts, context, and human knowledge. For example:
"The company is ready to sell” is not easy for a computer to understand because the sentence is syntactically ambiguous – is the company opening for business, or does it want to be acquired?
Resolving this ambiguity requires understanding the context: is the sentence in the middle of an article on mergers and acquisitions? Or is the sentence followed by “Its shelves are stocked with all the hot products"? This succeeding sentence is helpful only if the computer understands that the possessive pronoun “its” refers to the company, and that “stocked” and “products” are more relevant to selling goods than to being acquired.
19.1
-Sound produced
-Physical construct
-Language and linguistic structure
19.1.1 Language as a formal system
-language and linguistic structure as” things
-set of sentence
19.1.2 Language as physical reality
-analogous to that of electrons in physics
-stream of speech
19.1.3language as a psychological reality
-mental code
-language process
(怡萱)
19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean1. Forced-chioce version of the word-blending task:- English speakers: perferred onset-rime blends(e.g. SIEVE + FUZZ = SUZZ)- Korean speakers: perferred body-coda blends(e.g. THONG + SEM = THOM)2. Oral unit reduplication exercise:- English speakers: were better at the rime-copying task(Task #1: SAN-AN)- Korean speakers: were better at the body-copying task(Task #2: SA-SAN)19.3.2 Global sound-similarity judgments in English and Korean1. Global sound similarity judgments (SSJs):- Korean speakers: a shared initial CV that enhanced judged sound similarity ratings, while a shared fianl rime contributed no more to the similarity scores than a shared intial and final cosonant.- English speakers: the opposite to Korean speakers19.3.3 Concept formation in Korean1. Formation concept:- Korean speakers: a set of disyllabic words containing the common body sequence KA- as part of either syllable (KANG.CO / SIM.KAK) were significantly easier to identify a s a class than a set containing the common rime sequence -AK in either syllable (CAK.SIM / SIM.KAK).- English speakers: have not been tested yet19.3.4 A new list-recall task for non-literate participants:1.List recall task:- English participants: both readers and non-readers, were able to remember more names from the rime-sharing lists than from the body-sharing ones.- Korean participants: the readers and ono-readers performed in much the same way as English parcitipants.
(勝芬)
21. Experimental Methods in the ……..21.1 IntroductionPurposeTo provide answers about long consonants or geminates, using an experimental approach in the analysis of Hindi geminates.The specific topics in this chaptera) the duration of geminates and of the vowels preceding themb) long distance durational effectsc) the duration of geminates via-a-vis clusters and of the vowel preceding these.d)the syllabification of geminates and the issue of their integritye) the status of apparent geminates21.1.1 Some facts about geminates in Hindiinvolve the consonantal closuretwo separate consonantshave severe phonotactic restrictions.they occur only intervocalicallyalways preceded by the non-preipheral vowels, the short vowels21.2.2 Diachronic data on development of geminatesdue to cluster simplification in the development of Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA) from Sanskirt.
(威鈴)
21.1 Introductionlong consonants=geminatesPurpose:provide answers about long consonants or geminates, using an experimental approach in the analysis of Hindi geminates.The specific topics of this paper:(a)the duration of geminates and of the vowels preceding them(b) long distance durational effects(c)the duration of geminates vis-a-vis clusters and of the vowel preceding these(d)the syllabification of geminates and the issue of their integrity(e)the status of "apparent"geminates21.1.1 Some facts about geminates in Hindi:1.geminates involve the consonantal closure held for a longer period 2.geminates are not two separate consonants3.geminates occur only intervocalically4.geminates are always preceded by short vowels21.1.2 Diachronic data on development of geminates (1) Examples of geminate formation in the history of Indo-AryanSanskrit bhakta meal, food > Pali/Prakrit bhattaSanskrit sapta seven > Pali/Prakrit sattaSanskrit dugha-milk > MLA duddha-
(宜珊)
22. Morphophonemics and the Lexicon..
22.1 introductionTry to find a way to explain the stem-final alternation in Turkish22.2 the problemSize (length) as a categorizerWedel: neighborhood density & alternation rateConclude: Wedel’s findings cannot be meaningfully evaluated for it’s done by statistics from a dictionary.(a single-speaker corpus is a better choice)22.3 methodology: TELL and a frequency corpus22.3.1 the Turkish electronic living lexicon (TELL)Maker: University of California, BerkeleyContent: 30,000 words (25,000 headwords, 5,000 place names)Voice producer: 63-year-old standard Istanbul Turkish speakerMorphological context:NOM. caseACC. case1. person predicativePossessive caseProfessional suffix22.3.2 stem-final alternations: a snapshot from TELL22.3.3 frequency corpusMaker: Kemal Oflazer, at Sabancı University in Istanbul, TurkeyContent: 12,000,000 words22.4 frequencyRhodes’ AE Flapping and Bybee’s coronal deletionGradient alternation and semi-regularFindingsIn velar deletion: more frequent, more alternationIn voicing: less frequent, more alternation22.5 neighborhood density22.5.1 neighborhood density with a single-speaker corpus22.5.2 frequency-weighted neighborhood density22.6 cohorts22.7 etymology22.8 conclusions
(晟維)
23. How Do Listeners Compensate ……
How do listeners compensate for phonology? Eurie Shin23.1 IntroductionWords vs intended formsHow do listeners plan acoustic realizationsTwo approaches-different predictionPhonological-inference accountFeature-parsing accountCross-modal repetition priming study by Gaskell & Marslen-Wilson (1996)Gow (2002) –assimilation creates lexical ambiguityBase of feature-parsing accountGoal of the studyExamine whether listeners can cope with complete assimilationUnderlying homorganic consonant sequences as stimuliThree experiments of the study1) VCCV sequences generated by cross-splicing2) non-words of the form (C)VCCV(C)3) pseudo-compounds consisting of 2 non-words of the form (C)(V)(C)(C)VC#CVC23.2 Experiment I23.2.1 Methods7 repetitions of the original stimuli in 5 different vowel environmentsWaveform editing techniquesTaskDetermine whether the stimulus be transcribed as indicatedNon-parametrical tests23.2.2 ResultListeners accept homorganic clustersNo significant differences between coronal and velar coda responses23.2.3 DiscussionPurpose of the experimentResults-no evidence in favor of the phonological-inference accountAnother possibilityStimuli did not sound like real wordsDifference between coronal and labial coda optionsSummaryFeature-parsing account predict the resultsTentative interpretation
(Aleksandra)
Part Five: Ch 23.3~6 How do Listeners Compensate for Phonology?
Part Five: Ch 23.3~6 How do Listeners Compensate for Phonology?
23.3 Experiment 2
23.3.1 Methods
Use monomorphemic non-words in (C)VCCV(V)
A linguistically naïve female native Korean speaker recorded the stimuli
310 different items occurred twice
Ten Korean native speakers as listeners
23.3.2. Results
Listeners show high rates of correct response(96.8%) to the fillers.
23.3.3 Discussion
Goal
Whether listeners can infer the underlying forms
From phonetic homorganic clusters in non-words
Interesting result
Velar stimuli
Both /s.k/ and /p.k/ assimilate to [k.k] in natural speech
Main factors of lowering YES response
Frequency of labial-to-velar assimilation
Coronal-to-noncornoal assimilation
23.4 Experiment 3
23.4.1 Methods
Stimuli is pseudo-compounds consisting of two words
Listeners were provided transcription options
Ten Korean native speakers
23.4.2. Results
Rate of YES is 96.3%
Subject understood the task
23.4.3 Discussion
Purpose
Test the expectation
If listeners identified the initial morpheme in a new compound
Response
Higher than the previous ones
23.5 General Discussion
Subject are
preferred homorganic clusters as underlying forms
preferred coronal as targets of assimilation
Response pattern in Experiment 2 &3
Support the phonological-inference account
Listeners did not recover legal heterorganic clusters as underlying form
Result of Experiment 3
Show listeners reply more on phonological inference.
23.6 Conclusion
Goal
To test whether listeners use their phonological knowledge to infer original forms in speech recognition
Result suggest
Phonological inference is a part of the speech recognition process
(惠珍)
Resolving ambiguities in written and spoken language requires analyzing grammar, concepts, context, and human knowledge. For example:
"The company is ready to sell” is not easy for a computer to understand because the sentence is syntactically ambiguous – is the company opening for business, or does it want to be acquired?
Resolving this ambiguity requires understanding the context: is the sentence in the middle of an article on mergers and acquisitions? Or is the sentence followed by “Its shelves are stocked with all the hot products"? This succeeding sentence is helpful only if the computer understands that the possessive pronoun “its” refers to the company, and that “stocked” and “products” are more relevant to selling goods than to being acquired.
19.1
-Sound produced
-Physical construct
-Language and linguistic structure
19.1.1 Language as a formal system
-language and linguistic structure as” things
-set of sentence
19.1.2 Language as physical reality
-analogous to that of electrons in physics
-stream of speech
19.1.3language as a psychological reality
-mental code
-language process
(怡萱)
19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean1. Forced-chioce version of the word-blending task:- English speakers: perferred onset-rime blends(e.g. SIEVE + FUZZ = SUZZ)- Korean speakers: perferred body-coda blends(e.g. THONG + SEM = THOM)2. Oral unit reduplication exercise:- English speakers: were better at the rime-copying task(Task #1: SAN-AN)- Korean speakers: were better at the body-copying task(Task #2: SA-SAN)19.3.2 Global sound-similarity judgments in English and Korean1. Global sound similarity judgments (SSJs):- Korean speakers: a shared initial CV that enhanced judged sound similarity ratings, while a shared fianl rime contributed no more to the similarity scores than a shared intial and final cosonant.- English speakers: the opposite to Korean speakers19.3.3 Concept formation in Korean1. Formation concept:- Korean speakers: a set of disyllabic words containing the common body sequence KA- as part of either syllable (KANG.CO / SIM.KAK) were significantly easier to identify a s a class than a set containing the common rime sequence -AK in either syllable (CAK.SIM / SIM.KAK).- English speakers: have not been tested yet19.3.4 A new list-recall task for non-literate participants:1.List recall task:- English participants: both readers and non-readers, were able to remember more names from the rime-sharing lists than from the body-sharing ones.- Korean participants: the readers and ono-readers performed in much the same way as English parcitipants.
(勝芬)
21. Experimental Methods in the ……..21.1 IntroductionPurposeTo provide answers about long consonants or geminates, using an experimental approach in the analysis of Hindi geminates.The specific topics in this chaptera) the duration of geminates and of the vowels preceding themb) long distance durational effectsc) the duration of geminates via-a-vis clusters and of the vowel preceding these.d)the syllabification of geminates and the issue of their integritye) the status of apparent geminates21.1.1 Some facts about geminates in Hindiinvolve the consonantal closuretwo separate consonantshave severe phonotactic restrictions.they occur only intervocalicallyalways preceded by the non-preipheral vowels, the short vowels21.2.2 Diachronic data on development of geminatesdue to cluster simplification in the development of Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA) from Sanskirt.
(威鈴)
21.1 Introductionlong consonants=geminatesPurpose:provide answers about long consonants or geminates, using an experimental approach in the analysis of Hindi geminates.The specific topics of this paper:(a)the duration of geminates and of the vowels preceding them(b) long distance durational effects(c)the duration of geminates vis-a-vis clusters and of the vowel preceding these(d)the syllabification of geminates and the issue of their integrity(e)the status of "apparent"geminates21.1.1 Some facts about geminates in Hindi:1.geminates involve the consonantal closure held for a longer period 2.geminates are not two separate consonants3.geminates occur only intervocalically4.geminates are always preceded by short vowels21.1.2 Diachronic data on development of geminates (1) Examples of geminate formation in the history of Indo-AryanSanskrit bhakta meal, food > Pali/Prakrit bhattaSanskrit sapta seven > Pali/Prakrit sattaSanskrit dugha-milk > MLA duddha-
(宜珊)
22. Morphophonemics and the Lexicon..
22.1 introductionTry to find a way to explain the stem-final alternation in Turkish22.2 the problemSize (length) as a categorizerWedel: neighborhood density & alternation rateConclude: Wedel’s findings cannot be meaningfully evaluated for it’s done by statistics from a dictionary.(a single-speaker corpus is a better choice)22.3 methodology: TELL and a frequency corpus22.3.1 the Turkish electronic living lexicon (TELL)Maker: University of California, BerkeleyContent: 30,000 words (25,000 headwords, 5,000 place names)Voice producer: 63-year-old standard Istanbul Turkish speakerMorphological context:NOM. caseACC. case1. person predicativePossessive caseProfessional suffix22.3.2 stem-final alternations: a snapshot from TELL22.3.3 frequency corpusMaker: Kemal Oflazer, at Sabancı University in Istanbul, TurkeyContent: 12,000,000 words22.4 frequencyRhodes’ AE Flapping and Bybee’s coronal deletionGradient alternation and semi-regularFindingsIn velar deletion: more frequent, more alternationIn voicing: less frequent, more alternation22.5 neighborhood density22.5.1 neighborhood density with a single-speaker corpus22.5.2 frequency-weighted neighborhood density22.6 cohorts22.7 etymology22.8 conclusions
(晟維)
23. How Do Listeners Compensate ……
How do listeners compensate for phonology? Eurie Shin23.1 IntroductionWords vs intended formsHow do listeners plan acoustic realizationsTwo approaches-different predictionPhonological-inference accountFeature-parsing accountCross-modal repetition priming study by Gaskell & Marslen-Wilson (1996)Gow (2002) –assimilation creates lexical ambiguityBase of feature-parsing accountGoal of the studyExamine whether listeners can cope with complete assimilationUnderlying homorganic consonant sequences as stimuliThree experiments of the study1) VCCV sequences generated by cross-splicing2) non-words of the form (C)VCCV(C)3) pseudo-compounds consisting of 2 non-words of the form (C)(V)(C)(C)VC#CVC23.2 Experiment I23.2.1 Methods7 repetitions of the original stimuli in 5 different vowel environmentsWaveform editing techniquesTaskDetermine whether the stimulus be transcribed as indicatedNon-parametrical tests23.2.2 ResultListeners accept homorganic clustersNo significant differences between coronal and velar coda responses23.2.3 DiscussionPurpose of the experimentResults-no evidence in favor of the phonological-inference accountAnother possibilityStimuli did not sound like real wordsDifference between coronal and labial coda optionsSummaryFeature-parsing account predict the resultsTentative interpretation
(Aleksandra)
Part Five: Ch 23.3~6 How do Listeners Compensate for Phonology?
Part Five: Ch 23.3~6 How do Listeners Compensate for Phonology?
23.3 Experiment 2
23.3.1 Methods
Use monomorphemic non-words in (C)VCCV(V)
A linguistically naïve female native Korean speaker recorded the stimuli
310 different items occurred twice
Ten Korean native speakers as listeners
23.3.2. Results
Listeners show high rates of correct response(96.8%) to the fillers.
23.3.3 Discussion
Goal
Whether listeners can infer the underlying forms
From phonetic homorganic clusters in non-words
Interesting result
Velar stimuli
Both /s.k/ and /p.k/ assimilate to [k.k] in natural speech
Main factors of lowering YES response
Frequency of labial-to-velar assimilation
Coronal-to-noncornoal assimilation
23.4 Experiment 3
23.4.1 Methods
Stimuli is pseudo-compounds consisting of two words
Listeners were provided transcription options
Ten Korean native speakers
23.4.2. Results
Rate of YES is 96.3%
Subject understood the task
23.4.3 Discussion
Purpose
Test the expectation
If listeners identified the initial morpheme in a new compound
Response
Higher than the previous ones
23.5 General Discussion
Subject are
preferred homorganic clusters as underlying forms
preferred coronal as targets of assimilation
Response pattern in Experiment 2 &3
Support the phonological-inference account
Listeners did not recover legal heterorganic clusters as underlying form
Result of Experiment 3
Show listeners reply more on phonological inference.
23.6 Conclusion
Goal
To test whether listeners use their phonological knowledge to infer original forms in speech recognition
Result suggest
Phonological inference is a part of the speech recognition process
(惠珍)
2008年6月24日 星期二
CH 15
15.1
1. F0 plays an important role in conveying linguistic, paralinguistic, and non-linguistic information
2. Deriving a fullu quantitative represnetation of continuous F0 contours of speech is difficult
(1) Numbers of parameters
(2) Relationship between local accent/tone and global phrase intonation
(3) Mathematical representation
3.
(1)Model/rule-based approaches
(2)Data-driven approaches
(a)Explicit representation of only local components
(b) Both global and local components
4. Examples of those approaches
(1) early work by Pierre Humbert(1980)
(2) Intonation module for Mandarin in the Bell Labs TTS systems
(3) PENTA
(4) IPO model
(5) Soft Template Mark-UP Languages
(6) CART
(7) HMM
(8) Quantitative Models
1. F0 plays an important role in conveying linguistic, paralinguistic, and non-linguistic information
2. Deriving a fullu quantitative represnetation of continuous F0 contours of speech is difficult
(1) Numbers of parameters
(2) Relationship between local accent/tone and global phrase intonation
(3) Mathematical representation
3.
(1)Model/rule-based approaches
(2)Data-driven approaches
(a)Explicit representation of only local components
(b) Both global and local components
4. Examples of those approaches
(1) early work by Pierre Humbert(1980)
(2) Intonation module for Mandarin in the Bell Labs TTS systems
(3) PENTA
(4) IPO model
(5) Soft Template Mark-UP Languages
(6) CART
(7) HMM
(8) Quantitative Models
8.2
8.2.1
1. The real numbers of V & C
UPSID Database: 920 phonemes/systems with five vowels and 22 consonants
2. Trubetzkoy(1931)
3. Valle'e(1994)
4. Meillet and Cohen(1924) & Greeberg(1963)
5. Geographical tendencies rather than genetic ones
8.2.2 Vowels
1. UPSIP: 38 plain vowel qualities & secondary features
2. Strong preference for 5vowels
3. /i a u/, /i e a o u/,
4. schwa
(1)transparency rules
(2) parallel vowels & intrinsic principles
5. /i/ /a/ /u/ are systematically used except for
(1) dialectal Arabic Vs
(2) Australian Indigenous
(3) Anatolian Indo-European languages
6. Predictions should be based on
(1)Perceptual differentiation
(2) Perceptual representation spaces based on a hierarchy of features
1. The real numbers of V & C
UPSID Database: 920 phonemes/systems with five vowels and 22 consonants
2. Trubetzkoy(1931)
3. Valle'e(1994)
4. Meillet and Cohen(1924) & Greeberg(1963)
5. Geographical tendencies rather than genetic ones
8.2.2 Vowels
1. UPSIP: 38 plain vowel qualities & secondary features
2. Strong preference for 5vowels
3. /i a u/, /i e a o u/,
4. schwa
(1)transparency rules
(2) parallel vowels & intrinsic principles
5. /i/ /a/ /u/ are systematically used except for
(1) dialectal Arabic Vs
(2) Australian Indigenous
(3) Anatolian Indo-European languages
6. Predictions should be based on
(1)Perceptual differentiation
(2) Perceptual representation spaces based on a hierarchy of features
2008年6月12日 星期四
選擇性不語症 多半為焦慮引發
選擇性不語症 多半為焦慮引發
更新日期:2008/05/27 04:09
選擇性不語症屬於廣義精神症狀的一種，大人小孩都可能罹患，多半是對情境陌生感或焦慮引發，或受到某些重大刺激導致，小孩罹患機率居多。
選擇性不語症兒童會隨年紀增長與智力發展，不說話情形會逐漸改善，但屆時幾乎已過了最重要的學習階段，語文發音及人際關係困擾很難彌補，一般建議儘早尋求專業精神科醫師、心理師或諮商師介入輔導。
選擇性不語症的孩子不講話對象可能是老師、同學，也可能是自己親人。
精神科醫師蔣榮欽表示，不講話不一定是罹患選擇性不語症（也可能是自閉傾向），需經專業鑑定才能判別，輔導選擇性不語症孩童需以心理治療為主，設法建立孩子自信、並取得孩子信任。
醫界也嘗試研究藥物治療可能，但著重在降低小孩焦慮程度、減輕其畏懼心情，讓他們有比較自在的感覺。
（記者王榮祥）
http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/080527/78/100j3.html
更新日期:2008/05/27 04:09
選擇性不語症屬於廣義精神症狀的一種，大人小孩都可能罹患，多半是對情境陌生感或焦慮引發，或受到某些重大刺激導致，小孩罹患機率居多。
選擇性不語症兒童會隨年紀增長與智力發展，不說話情形會逐漸改善，但屆時幾乎已過了最重要的學習階段，語文發音及人際關係困擾很難彌補，一般建議儘早尋求專業精神科醫師、心理師或諮商師介入輔導。
選擇性不語症的孩子不講話對象可能是老師、同學，也可能是自己親人。
精神科醫師蔣榮欽表示，不講話不一定是罹患選擇性不語症（也可能是自閉傾向），需經專業鑑定才能判別，輔導選擇性不語症孩童需以心理治療為主，設法建立孩子自信、並取得孩子信任。
醫界也嘗試研究藥物治療可能，但著重在降低小孩焦慮程度、減輕其畏懼心情，讓他們有比較自在的感覺。
（記者王榮祥）
http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/080527/78/100j3.html
淺談兒童語言治療
淺談兒童語言治療
更新日期:2007/09/26 12:50 周琪霏／整理報導
一般兒童發音不標準的情形，稱為『構音/音韻異常』，造成異常的原因：
1.) 機能性構音/音韻異常：指器官上的構造及運用，都找不出任何缺陷，但是，就是發音不標準。
2.) 構音器官結構上的問題，如：舌繫帶、唇顎裂、嚴重咬和不正。
3.) 構音器官神經肌肉控制的問題，如腦性麻痺、口腔動作協調差。
4.) 感覺異常，如：聽力障礙、口腔靈敏度差。
5.) 智能問題，如：發展遲緩、智能障礙。
天主教聖功醫院復健科 王鳳妃語言治療師建議在幼兒3-4歲以前，構音器官的發展尚未完全成熟，語言純熟度不夠，常會出現發音不標準的情形，但隨著年齡的增長，語言發展愈來愈成熟，構音/音韻異常的情形就會自行改善，因此，孩子到了四歲後仍然有發音不標準的情形，則需要接受語言治療師的評估與治療。
所謂『舌根』，學理上稱為『舌繫帶』，而幼兒舌繫帶是否太緊，只要觀察幼兒伸舌頭時，舌頭中線是否呈現凹陷，也就是舌頭伸出來的時候是否呈現M型，這樣就是舌繫帶太緊，或是引導幼兒做舌頭運動，看舌尖是否能碰觸上下唇，也順便觀察舌頭的活動情形。一般而言，舌繫帶通常不是造成幼兒構音/音韻異常的主要因素，可以請復健科醫師、耳鼻喉科醫師或語言治療師評估確認，以免讓孩子白挨一刀。
構音/音韻異常的幼兒，接受語言治療最適當的時機，為年齡4-6歲，最好在孩子上小學一年級前完全矯正，才不會造成孩子的自卑心理或影響其人際互動。單純的機能性構音/音韻異常，只要家長與幼兒能配合，在專業的語言治療師指導下，成效通常不錯，大部分的幼兒在接受語言治療後，半年至一年內口齒清晰度會有明顯的改善，甚至可以完全發出正確的語音，若家長對孩子的發音仍然有疑問或不放心，建議找語言治療師評估是最好的方法。
資料來源：http://www.uho.com.tw/hotnews.asp?aid=3629
http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/070926/61/l6iy.html
更新日期:2007/09/26 12:50 周琪霏／整理報導
一般兒童發音不標準的情形，稱為『構音/音韻異常』，造成異常的原因：
1.) 機能性構音/音韻異常：指器官上的構造及運用，都找不出任何缺陷，但是，就是發音不標準。
2.) 構音器官結構上的問題，如：舌繫帶、唇顎裂、嚴重咬和不正。
3.) 構音器官神經肌肉控制的問題，如腦性麻痺、口腔動作協調差。
4.) 感覺異常，如：聽力障礙、口腔靈敏度差。
5.) 智能問題，如：發展遲緩、智能障礙。
天主教聖功醫院復健科 王鳳妃語言治療師建議在幼兒3-4歲以前，構音器官的發展尚未完全成熟，語言純熟度不夠，常會出現發音不標準的情形，但隨著年齡的增長，語言發展愈來愈成熟，構音/音韻異常的情形就會自行改善，因此，孩子到了四歲後仍然有發音不標準的情形，則需要接受語言治療師的評估與治療。
所謂『舌根』，學理上稱為『舌繫帶』，而幼兒舌繫帶是否太緊，只要觀察幼兒伸舌頭時，舌頭中線是否呈現凹陷，也就是舌頭伸出來的時候是否呈現M型，這樣就是舌繫帶太緊，或是引導幼兒做舌頭運動，看舌尖是否能碰觸上下唇，也順便觀察舌頭的活動情形。一般而言，舌繫帶通常不是造成幼兒構音/音韻異常的主要因素，可以請復健科醫師、耳鼻喉科醫師或語言治療師評估確認，以免讓孩子白挨一刀。
構音/音韻異常的幼兒，接受語言治療最適當的時機，為年齡4-6歲，最好在孩子上小學一年級前完全矯正，才不會造成孩子的自卑心理或影響其人際互動。單純的機能性構音/音韻異常，只要家長與幼兒能配合，在專業的語言治療師指導下，成效通常不錯，大部分的幼兒在接受語言治療後，半年至一年內口齒清晰度會有明顯的改善，甚至可以完全發出正確的語音，若家長對孩子的發音仍然有疑問或不放心，建議找語言治療師評估是最好的方法。
資料來源：http://www.uho.com.tw/hotnews.asp?aid=3629
http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/070926/61/l6iy.html
Ch. 15
Physiological and Physical Base of the Command-Response Model for Genereating Fundamental Frequency Contours in Tone Languages
15.1
Fundamental frequency(F0): linguistic, paralinguistic, and non-linguistics information
Difficulties in deriving representation of continuous F0 contours
Parallel Encoding and Target Approximation Model(Xu)
Hierarchical approcach---IPO model ('t Hart and Cohen)
Hierarchical approach---soft Template Mark-up Language(Kochanski and Shih)
Data-driven approaches
Physiological and physical mechanisms for F0 controls
Physiological and physical properties of vocal folds and laryngeal structure
Positive and negative local components to express tones
15.1
Fundamental frequency(F0): linguistic, paralinguistic, and non-linguistics information
Difficulties in deriving representation of continuous F0 contours
Parallel Encoding and Target Approximation Model(Xu)
Hierarchical approcach---IPO model ('t Hart and Cohen)
Hierarchical approach---soft Template Mark-up Language(Kochanski and Shih)
Data-driven approaches
Physiological and physical mechanisms for F0 controls
Physiological and physical properties of vocal folds and laryngeal structure
Positive and negative local components to express tones
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