A methodological general principle emerges from these considerations. Morphological characteristics of a species may be understood as a specialized form of the general (abstracted) type characteristic of the genus; each genus represents a special modification from the general structural pattern of the superordinate family; each family represents special deviations from the more general structural pattern of the order, etc. On the other hand, the systematic of behavior do not have the same hierarchical relationships. Discontinuities and unique traits are common; specializations of behavior seem to deviate more markedly from general patterns, and in many cases the specializations are so pronounced that the abstraction of general behavior types is impossible or hazardous.
基於這些考量，我們有了一個方法論上的一般原則。某一物種的形態特徵可以看作是所屬的屬的一般(抽象)特徵的一種特化的形式；一個科之下的每一個屬表現了對該科的一般結構樣式的一種特別調整；一個目之下的每一個科代表了對該目的一般結構樣式特殊的偏離。另一方面，行為的系統並沒有相同的階層關係。不連續的情形和獨有的特徵是常有的事；行為的特化似乎更顯著地偏離了一般樣式，而且在許多情形下，這些特化是如此的顯著以至於要對抽象出一般行為類型是不可能或是冒險的。
This difference in structural as opposed to behavioral systematics may be entirely due to the limitations of human observation and insight. We can discern, visually, the relationship between forms; but the relationship of behavior escapes our powers of observation more easily. However this may be, it leads to the following methodological principle:
結構的分類學相對於行為的分類學之間的差異可能完全是因為人類觀察以及眼光有侷限。我們可以從外觀上察覺形式之間的關係，但是行為之間的關係並不容易看得出來。然而，無論如何，這引出了以下的方法論原則。
Knowledge of structure alone cannot lead to exact inference of behavior patterns (only general modes of life); but once behavior patterns are known, we can understand and explain by hindsight certain specialization of morphology.
僅憑著對於結構的認識並不能使我們確切的推論行為的型態(只能推論生命的一般模式)；但是一旦認識到行為的型態，我們就能夠經由後見之明來了解並且解釋某些形態上的特化。
This is a methodological formulation. It does not give clues to the direction of causality; it does not assert that behavior is prior to form or vice versa.
這是一個方法論上的構想，它並沒有給我們線索去探討因果關係；這個構想並不主張行為先於形式，或者是形式先於行為。
2008年11月25日 星期二
Preface 1
Ideas do not grow in vacuo. Throughout my fifteen years of residence in the Cambridge area, I have greatly profited from courses taken and given, from conversations, and from general interaction with colleagues and students. I wish to mention particularly Georg v. Békésy, Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, and Peter Wolff. All of them have discussed various aspects of this book with me, and most have read and commented upon several chapters or the entire manuscript. I am also indebted to Hans-Lukas Teuber for critically reading Chapters one and five; to A. H Schultz and George Erikson for advising me on Chapter two; to Philip Liberman and Arthur House for commenting on Chapter three; to M. Kinsbourne for reading chapter four; to Charles Gross and Peter Huttenlocher for criticisms of Chapter five; to H. Burla, Hans Kalmus, and Ernst Mayr for reading various versions of Chapter six; and to DeLee Lantz for comments and criticisms on Chapter eight.
想法並非憑空而來。住在劍橋的期間，上課與聽課時與同事和學生的交流，使我獲益良多。我要特別感謝Georg v. Békésy,Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, 還有 Peter Wolff。 他們皆與我討論過書中的許多部份，大多數人曾評論或閱讀過好幾個章節或整個手稿。我也要感謝Hans-Lukas Teuber，謝謝他對第一章和第五章的批評指教; 還要感謝 A. H Schultz 和 George Erikson， 他們給了許多第二章的建議;感謝 Philip Liberman and Arthur House 評論了第三章; 感謝 M. Kinsbourne閱讀第四章; 感謝Charles Gross和 Peter Huttenlocher 對第五章的批評; 感謝H. Burla, Hans Kalmus和 Ernst Mayr 閱讀了第六章的各個版本;感謝 DeLee Lantz 對第八章的評論與批評。
想法並非憑空而來。住在劍橋的期間，上課與聽課時與同事和學生的交流，使我獲益良多。我要特別感謝Georg v. Békésy,Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, 還有 Peter Wolff。 他們皆與我討論過書中的許多部份，大多數人曾評論或閱讀過好幾個章節或整個手稿。我也要感謝Hans-Lukas Teuber，謝謝他對第一章和第五章的批評指教; 還要感謝 A. H Schultz 和 George Erikson， 他們給了許多第二章的建議;感謝 Philip Liberman and Arthur House 評論了第三章; 感謝 M. Kinsbourne閱讀第四章; 感謝Charles Gross和 Peter Huttenlocher 對第五章的批評; 感謝H. Burla, Hans Kalmus和 Ernst Mayr 閱讀了第六章的各個版本;感謝 DeLee Lantz 對第八章的評論與批評。
2008年11月5日 星期三
DeLee (Dorothy) Lantz
I have been licensed in California and enjoying my clinical practice here since 1977. After receiving my doctorate from Harvard University in 1963, I worked first as a teacher and researcher, as well as a clinician. Former positions include the faculties of the University of California at Santa Cruz, UCLA School of Medicine and the California Institute of Integral Studies in San Francisco. I also spent a total of four years in India, as a counseling psychologist, as well as doing research in villages and studying Eastern systems of understanding the mind and emotions.
In my clinical practice, I see clients who range in age from adolescence to older adulthood. I like to adapt my approach to what is best for each individual. For anxiety disorders such as panic disorders and phobias, I have found that cognitive-behavioral therapy with biofeedback generally has the best results. For overcoming blocks to achieving one’s goals, often a more psychodynamic approach is best for uncovering fears and old, self-defeating messages. The new “positive psychology”, or psychology of well-being, or “flourishing”, is very useful for those who want to develop more fully the attitudes and habits that support a healthier, happier present and future. Frequently, I use a combination of approaches. Integral to all my work is a collaborative relationship with the client and support of his or her strengths and resources.
I am especially experienced in psychotherapy for anxiety disorders, depression, pain or medical conditions and life transitions. Areas of greatest biofeedback experience are anxiety, pain management, stress management and psychophysiological disorders, where the mind-body connection is especially important. I’d be delighted to hear from you if you feel that my approaches and experience might be of help to you.
In my clinical practice, I see clients who range in age from adolescence to older adulthood. I like to adapt my approach to what is best for each individual. For anxiety disorders such as panic disorders and phobias, I have found that cognitive-behavioral therapy with biofeedback generally has the best results. For overcoming blocks to achieving one’s goals, often a more psychodynamic approach is best for uncovering fears and old, self-defeating messages. The new “positive psychology”, or psychology of well-being, or “flourishing”, is very useful for those who want to develop more fully the attitudes and habits that support a healthier, happier present and future. Frequently, I use a combination of approaches. Integral to all my work is a collaborative relationship with the client and support of his or her strengths and resources.
I am especially experienced in psychotherapy for anxiety disorders, depression, pain or medical conditions and life transitions. Areas of greatest biofeedback experience are anxiety, pain management, stress management and psychophysiological disorders, where the mind-body connection is especially important. I’d be delighted to hear from you if you feel that my approaches and experience might be of help to you.
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky (pronounced /noʊm ˈtʃɑmski/; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher,[2][3][4] cognitive scientist, political activist, author, and lecturer. He is an Institute Professor emeritus and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[5] Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as the father of modern linguistics.[6][7] Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident, an anarchist,[8] and a libertarian socialist intellectual.
In the 1950s, Chomsky began developing his theory of generative grammar, which has had a profound influence on linguistics. He established the Chomsky hierarchy, a classification of formal languages in terms of their generative power. His 1959 review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior challenged the behaviorist approaches to studies of behavior and language dominant at the time and contributed to the cognitive revolution in psychology. His naturalistic[9] approach to the study of language has affected the philosophy of language and mind.[10]
Beginning with his opposition to the Vietnam War Chomsky established himself as a prominent critic of US foreign and domestic policy. He is a self-declared adherent of libertarian socialism which he regards as "the proper and natural extension of classical liberalism into the era of advanced industrial society."[11]
According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992, Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar during the 1980–92 period, and was the eighth most-cited source.[12][13][14] At the same time, his status as a leading critic of American politics has made him a controversial figure.[15]
In the 1950s, Chomsky began developing his theory of generative grammar, which has had a profound influence on linguistics. He established the Chomsky hierarchy, a classification of formal languages in terms of their generative power. His 1959 review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior challenged the behaviorist approaches to studies of behavior and language dominant at the time and contributed to the cognitive revolution in psychology. His naturalistic[9] approach to the study of language has affected the philosophy of language and mind.[10]
Beginning with his opposition to the Vietnam War Chomsky established himself as a prominent critic of US foreign and domestic policy. He is a self-declared adherent of libertarian socialism which he regards as "the proper and natural extension of classical liberalism into the era of advanced industrial society."[11]
According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992, Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar during the 1980–92 period, and was the eighth most-cited source.[12][13][14] At the same time, his status as a leading critic of American politics has made him a controversial figure.[15]
Georg von Békésy (1899 - 1972)
Georg von Békésy was born in Budapest, Hungary on June 3, 1899. He received his early education in Munich, Constantinople, Budapest, and Zurich and studied chemistry at the University of Berne. He was awarded his Ph.D. from the University of Budapest in 1926 for development of a fast method for determining molecular weight. Afterwards he worked primarily for the Hungarian Telephone and Post Office Laboratory in Budapest where his interests were directed towards problems of telecommunications. Eventually he examined the problem of how best to design a telephone earphone.
Research on this problem led to his 1928 discovery of the mechanical characteristics of neural transduction in the inner ear. One of Békésy's principal contributions was the development of anatomical techniques that allowed rapid, nondestructive dissection of the cochlea. This dissection was done under a low-power microscope using a special grinding mechanism operated in a water bath. Békésy was able to observe the traveling waves along the basilar membrane that were produced by sound. He observed the shape of these waves by stroboscopic examination of the motion of particles of silver which he sprinkled on the nearly transparent basilar membrane. Depending upon the frequency of the sound, the traveling waves achieved maximum amplitude in different locations. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1961 for his discovery and subsequent research arising from it.
In 1947, after a year in Sweden, Dr. Békésy came to the United States and worked at Harvard University where he developed a mechanical model of the inner ear. A separate page shows more pictures of this fascinating device and Bekesy's description of it from his Nobel lecture. The model became a useful tool for his more recent investigations.
Threatened by forced retirement from Harvard, Dr. Békésy came to the University of Hawaii in 1966. He was attracted by construction of a special laboratory for him and the prospect of closer contact with oriental culture. His research in Hawaii was partially sponsored by Hawaiian Telephone and was concerned with phenomena that were general properties of all senses.
Throughout his life, Dr. Békésy assembled an extensive collection of paintings, statues and artifacts now owned by the Nobel Foundation. The process of constant comparison of related objects which he used to select pieces for his collection was to Békésy very similar to the methods he used to organize his scientific research.
Learn more about Georg von Békésy by browsing the many online resources available.
Threatened by forced retirement from Harvard, Dr. Békésy came to the University of Hawaii in 1966. He was attracted by construction of a special laboratory for him and the prospect of closer contact with oriental culture. His research in Hawaii was partially sponsored by Hawaiian Telephone and was concerned with phenomena that were general properties of all senses.
Throughout his life, Dr. Békésy assembled an extensive collection of paintings, statues and artifacts now owned by the Nobel Foundation. The process of constant comparison of related objects which he used to select pieces for his collection was to Békésy very similar to the methods he used to organize his scientific research.
Learn more about Georg von Békésy by browsing the many online resources available.
2008年10月31日 星期五
LB72 伊津(References)
Ajuriaguerra, J. de and Hécaen, H. (1949), Le Cortex cerebral; étude neuro-psychopathologique. Masson, Paris.
Bailey, P., and Bonin, G. v. (1951), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Bailey, P., Bonin, G.v., and McCulloch, W. S. (1950), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Bailey, P., Buchanan, D. N., and Bucy, P.C. (1939), Intracranial Tumors of Infancy and Childhood. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Bailey, P. and Davis, E. W. (1942), Effects of lesions of the periaqueductal gray matter in the cat, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med. 51:305-306.
Bok, S.T. (1959), Histonomy of the Cerebral Cortex. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Bonin, G. von (1950), Essay on the Cerebral Cortex. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
Bonin, G. von (1962), Anatomical asymmetries of the cerebral hemispheres, in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance. V.B. Mountcastle (ed.), The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.
Bonin, G. von and Bailey, P. (1961), Pattern of the cerebral isocortex, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology. H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Karger, Basel.
Braus, H. (1954), Anatomie des Menschen, ein Lehrbuch für studierende Ärzte fortgeführt von Curt Elze (3rd ed.), Vol. I. Springer, Berlin.
Brodnitz, F. S. (1960), Speech after glossectomy, Curr. Probl. Phoniat. Logoper. 1:68-72.
Campion, G. G. and Elliot-Smith, G. The Neutral Basis of Thought. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1935
Clark, W. E. Le Gros (1932), The structure and connections of the thalamus, Brain 55:406-470.
Conrad, K. (1954), New problems of aphasia, Brain 77:491-509
Coppoletta, J. M. and Wolbach, S. B. (1933), Body length and organ weights of infants and children, Am. J. Pathol. 9:55-70.
Critchley, M. (1962), Speech and speecj-loss in relation to duality of the brain in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance, V. B. Mountcastle (ed.), pp.208-213. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Dodgson, M.C. H. (1962), The Growing Brain; An Essay in Developmental Neurology. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.
DuBrul, E. L. (1958), Evolution of the Speech Apparatus. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
Duckworth, W. L. H.(1910), A note on sections of the lips of the primates, J. Anat. And Physiol. 44: 348:-353.
Feremutsch, K. (1963), Thalamus, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology, H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Vol. II, part 2, fasc. 6. Karger, Basel.
Fink, B. R. and Kirschner, F. (1959), Observations on the acoustical and mechanical properties of the vocal folds, Folia Phoniatria 11: 167-172.
Goldstein, K. (1942), After-effects of Brain Injuries in War; Their Evalution an dTreatment, Grune and Stratton, New York.
Guiot, G., Hertzog, E, Rondot , P., and Molina, P. (1961), Arrest or acceleration of speech evoked by thalamic stimulation in the course of stereotaxic procedures for Parkinsonism, Brain 84:363-380
Bailey, P., and Bonin, G. v. (1951), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Bailey, P., Bonin, G.v., and McCulloch, W. S. (1950), The Isocortex of the Chimpanzee. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Bailey, P., Buchanan, D. N., and Bucy, P.C. (1939), Intracranial Tumors of Infancy and Childhood. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Bailey, P. and Davis, E. W. (1942), Effects of lesions of the periaqueductal gray matter in the cat, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med. 51:305-306.
Bok, S.T. (1959), Histonomy of the Cerebral Cortex. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Bonin, G. von (1950), Essay on the Cerebral Cortex. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
Bonin, G. von (1962), Anatomical asymmetries of the cerebral hemispheres, in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance. V.B. Mountcastle (ed.), The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.
Bonin, G. von and Bailey, P. (1961), Pattern of the cerebral isocortex, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology. H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Karger, Basel.
Braus, H. (1954), Anatomie des Menschen, ein Lehrbuch für studierende Ärzte fortgeführt von Curt Elze (3rd ed.), Vol. I. Springer, Berlin.
Brodnitz, F. S. (1960), Speech after glossectomy, Curr. Probl. Phoniat. Logoper. 1:68-72.
Campion, G. G. and Elliot-Smith, G. The Neutral Basis of Thought. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1935
Clark, W. E. Le Gros (1932), The structure and connections of the thalamus, Brain 55:406-470.
Conrad, K. (1954), New problems of aphasia, Brain 77:491-509
Coppoletta, J. M. and Wolbach, S. B. (1933), Body length and organ weights of infants and children, Am. J. Pathol. 9:55-70.
Critchley, M. (1962), Speech and speecj-loss in relation to duality of the brain in Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance, V. B. Mountcastle (ed.), pp.208-213. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Dodgson, M.C. H. (1962), The Growing Brain; An Essay in Developmental Neurology. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.
DuBrul, E. L. (1958), Evolution of the Speech Apparatus. C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
Duckworth, W. L. H.(1910), A note on sections of the lips of the primates, J. Anat. And Physiol. 44: 348:-353.
Feremutsch, K. (1963), Thalamus, in Primatologia; Handbook of Primatology, H. Hofer, A. H. Schultz, and D. Starck (eds.), Vol. II, part 2, fasc. 6. Karger, Basel.
Fink, B. R. and Kirschner, F. (1959), Observations on the acoustical and mechanical properties of the vocal folds, Folia Phoniatria 11: 167-172.
Goldstein, K. (1942), After-effects of Brain Injuries in War; Their Evalution an dTreatment, Grune and Stratton, New York.
Guiot, G., Hertzog, E, Rondot , P., and Molina, P. (1961), Arrest or acceleration of speech evoked by thalamic stimulation in the course of stereotaxic procedures for Parkinsonism, Brain 84:363-380
2008年10月28日 星期二
Karl Lashley
Karl Spencer Lashley (1890–1958), born in Davis, West Virginia, was an American psychologist and behaviorist well-remembered for his influential contributions to the study of learning and memory. His failure to find a single biological locus of memory (or "engram", as he called it) suggested to him that memories were not localized to one part of the brain, but were widely distributed throughout the cortex.
While working toward his Ph.D. in genetics at Johns Hopkins University, Karl Lashley became associated with the influential psychologist John B. Watson. During three years of postdoctoral work on vertebrate behavior (1914-17), he began formulating the research program that was to occupy the remainder of his life.
In 1920 he became an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, where his prolific research on brain function gained him a professorship in 1924. He was later a professor at the University of Chicago (1929-35) and Harvard University (1935-55) and also served as director of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology, Orange Park, Florida from 1942 to 1955.
His work included research on brain mechanisms related to sense receptors and on the cortical basis of motor activities. His major work was done on the measurement of behavior before and after specific, carefully quantified, induced cortical damage in rats. He trained rats to perform specific tasks (seeking a food reward), then lesioned varying portions of the rat cortex, either before or after the animals received the training depending upon the experiment. The amount of cortical tissue removed had specific effects on acquisition and retention of knowledge, but the location of the removed cortex had no effect on the rats' performance in the maze. This led Lashley to conclude that memories are not localized but widely distributed across the cortex.Today we know that distribution of engrams does in fact exist, however, the distribution is not equal across all cortical areas, as Lashley assumed. His study of the V1 (primary visual cortex) led him to believe that it was a site of learning and memory storage (i.e an engram) in the brain. He reached this erroneous conclusion due to imperfect lesioning methods.
By 1950, Lashley had distilled his research into two theories. The principle of "mass action" stated that the cerebral cortex acts as one—as a whole—in many types of learning. The principle of "equipotentiality" stated that if certain parts of the brain are damaged, other parts of the brain may take on the role of the damaged portion.
While working toward his Ph.D. in genetics at Johns Hopkins University, Karl Lashley became associated with the influential psychologist John B. Watson. During three years of postdoctoral work on vertebrate behavior (1914-17), he began formulating the research program that was to occupy the remainder of his life.
In 1920 he became an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, where his prolific research on brain function gained him a professorship in 1924. He was later a professor at the University of Chicago (1929-35) and Harvard University (1935-55) and also served as director of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology, Orange Park, Florida from 1942 to 1955.
His work included research on brain mechanisms related to sense receptors and on the cortical basis of motor activities. His major work was done on the measurement of behavior before and after specific, carefully quantified, induced cortical damage in rats. He trained rats to perform specific tasks (seeking a food reward), then lesioned varying portions of the rat cortex, either before or after the animals received the training depending upon the experiment. The amount of cortical tissue removed had specific effects on acquisition and retention of knowledge, but the location of the removed cortex had no effect on the rats' performance in the maze. This led Lashley to conclude that memories are not localized but widely distributed across the cortex.Today we know that distribution of engrams does in fact exist, however, the distribution is not equal across all cortical areas, as Lashley assumed. His study of the V1 (primary visual cortex) led him to believe that it was a site of learning and memory storage (i.e an engram) in the brain. He reached this erroneous conclusion due to imperfect lesioning methods.
By 1950, Lashley had distilled his research into two theories. The principle of "mass action" stated that the cerebral cortex acts as one—as a whole—in many types of learning. The principle of "equipotentiality" stated that if certain parts of the brain are damaged, other parts of the brain may take on the role of the damaged portion.
LB27伊津
LB27
A methodological general principle emerges from these considerations. Morphological characteristics of a species may be understood as a specialize form of the general (abstracted) type characteristic of the genus; each genus represents a special modification from the general structural pattern of the superordinate family; each family represents special deviations from the more general structural pattern of the order, etc. On the other hand, the systematic of behavior do not have the same hierarchical relationships. Discontinuities and unique traits are common; specializations of behavior seem to deviate more markedly from general patterns, and in many cases the specializations are so pronounced that the abstraction of general behavior types is impossible or hazardous.
This difference in structural as opposed to behavioral systematic may be entirely due to the limitations of human observation and insight. We can discern, visually, the relationship between forms; but the relationship of behavior escapes our powers of observation more easily. However this may be, it leads to the following methodological principle:
Knowledge of structure alone cannot lead to exact inference of behavior patterns (only general modes of life); but once behavior patterns are known, we can understand and explain by hindsight certain specialization of morphology.
This is a methodological formulation. It does not give clues to the direction of causality; it does not assert that behavior is prior to form or vice versa.
A methodological general principle emerges from these considerations. Morphological characteristics of a species may be understood as a specialize form of the general (abstracted) type characteristic of the genus; each genus represents a special modification from the general structural pattern of the superordinate family; each family represents special deviations from the more general structural pattern of the order, etc. On the other hand, the systematic of behavior do not have the same hierarchical relationships. Discontinuities and unique traits are common; specializations of behavior seem to deviate more markedly from general patterns, and in many cases the specializations are so pronounced that the abstraction of general behavior types is impossible or hazardous.
This difference in structural as opposed to behavioral systematic may be entirely due to the limitations of human observation and insight. We can discern, visually, the relationship between forms; but the relationship of behavior escapes our powers of observation more easily. However this may be, it leads to the following methodological principle:
Knowledge of structure alone cannot lead to exact inference of behavior patterns (only general modes of life); but once behavior patterns are known, we can understand and explain by hindsight certain specialization of morphology.
This is a methodological formulation. It does not give clues to the direction of causality; it does not assert that behavior is prior to form or vice versa.
LBT 26 伊津
The same is true of species-specific behavior. The form of spinnerets with their glands does not give any clue to the type of web a spider wives. From the beaver’s anatomy we could not have guessed that he builds dams. The architecture of a birds nest is, in most instances, unrelated to the animal’s morphology. Thus, types of behavior which no one would hesitate to call essentially biologically given are not determined simply by the animal’s form.對物種特有的行為而言也是如此，蜘蛛吐絲器以及其腺體的形式對蛛網的類型
，並沒有留下任何線索。從水獺的解剖學來看，我們猜不到他會建築水堤。鳥巢的建築結構，在多數的情形下，與鳥類的型態無關。於是，雖然任何人都會毫不猶豫的認為行為的類型本質上是由生物基礎決定的，但是行為的類型並非僅取決於動物的形式。
The reverse is true also. Certain morphological distinctions may exist between species which do not correspond to clearly related behavioral differences. The outer ear in primates is an example (see Fig. 1.2). With the exception of some specialized ear forms of certain prosimians, the auricles of primates developed in a number of directions that have no obvious adaptive value (to the human observer) and no relevance to any of the behavioral characteristics that distinguish these species.
反之亦然，某些形態的區別可能存在於不同物種之間，而這些區別並沒有清楚的對應到行為上的不同。靈長類的外耳即為一例。(見圖1.2)除了某些原猴類，他們特化的耳朵形式是例外，靈長類的耳廓朝著許多方向發展，這沒有明顯的適應性價值(對人類觀察者而言)，而且與區別這些物種的任何行為特徵也毫無相關。
It is clear, therefore, that neither our conviction that tissues and behavior constitute an organismic unity because of their common developmental history nor the established fact that genetic changes and speciation always affect form as well as function makes it necessary to assume a correlation between specialized organs and species-specific behavior. There are many types of instinctive behavior which have no structural correlates; and there are many structural distinctions between species which have no behavioral correlates. Thus there is necessarily a historical but not necessarily a casual relationship between gross structure and over-all behavior pattern. This point is important because it emphasizes once more the difficulty, if not complete impossibility, of setting up common sense criteria for the distinction between innate and acquired types of behavior.
因此，很清楚的，我們的兩個確信：1.基於共同的發展史，組織和行為構成有機的整體；2.基因改變和物種形成總是同時影響形式與功能，都不會讓我們非得認定特化的習慣和物種特有的行為有相互關係。有很多種本能性的行為是找不到相關聯的結構；而許多物種之間結構上的區別也找不到相關聯的行為。因此，在粗略的結構與整體的行為模式之間，必然有個歷史的但未必是因果的關係。這一點很重要，因為對於建立一個常識性的標準來區別天生的和習得的行為種類而言，以上的觀點再次的強調其困難，即便不是完全不可能。
，並沒有留下任何線索。從水獺的解剖學來看，我們猜不到他會建築水堤。鳥巢的建築結構，在多數的情形下，與鳥類的型態無關。於是，雖然任何人都會毫不猶豫的認為行為的類型本質上是由生物基礎決定的，但是行為的類型並非僅取決於動物的形式。
The reverse is true also. Certain morphological distinctions may exist between species which do not correspond to clearly related behavioral differences. The outer ear in primates is an example (see Fig. 1.2). With the exception of some specialized ear forms of certain prosimians, the auricles of primates developed in a number of directions that have no obvious adaptive value (to the human observer) and no relevance to any of the behavioral characteristics that distinguish these species.
反之亦然，某些形態的區別可能存在於不同物種之間，而這些區別並沒有清楚的對應到行為上的不同。靈長類的外耳即為一例。(見圖1.2)除了某些原猴類，他們特化的耳朵形式是例外，靈長類的耳廓朝著許多方向發展，這沒有明顯的適應性價值(對人類觀察者而言)，而且與區別這些物種的任何行為特徵也毫無相關。
It is clear, therefore, that neither our conviction that tissues and behavior constitute an organismic unity because of their common developmental history nor the established fact that genetic changes and speciation always affect form as well as function makes it necessary to assume a correlation between specialized organs and species-specific behavior. There are many types of instinctive behavior which have no structural correlates; and there are many structural distinctions between species which have no behavioral correlates. Thus there is necessarily a historical but not necessarily a casual relationship between gross structure and over-all behavior pattern. This point is important because it emphasizes once more the difficulty, if not complete impossibility, of setting up common sense criteria for the distinction between innate and acquired types of behavior.
因此，很清楚的，我們的兩個確信：1.基於共同的發展史，組織和行為構成有機的整體；2.基因改變和物種形成總是同時影響形式與功能，都不會讓我們非得認定特化的習慣和物種特有的行為有相互關係。有很多種本能性的行為是找不到相關聯的結構；而許多物種之間結構上的區別也找不到相關聯的行為。因此，在粗略的結構與整體的行為模式之間，必然有個歷史的但未必是因果的關係。這一點很重要，因為對於建立一個常識性的標準來區別天生的和習得的行為種類而言，以上的觀點再次的強調其困難，即便不是完全不可能。
2008年10月14日 星期二
LB100伊津
(P.100)
Each row corresponds to a specific muscle, label from a to f. Naturally, there are many more muscles involved in the speech act, just as an utterance consists usually of more than six speech sounds. This is merely a schema. A plus sign means contraction, zero means relaxation. If we assume silence and relaxation of all muscles before and after the production of each sound (for the sake of discussion), the matrix indicates that in order to produce soundⅠit will be necessary to contract muscles a, c, d, and e, for sound Ⅱ muscles a, b, c, f, etc.每一列對應到一個特定的肌肉，標記從a到f。當然有更多肌肉涉及了說話的動作，就如同說話通常是由多於六個語音組成。這只是一個圖式。加號意指收縮，0意指舒張。如果我們假設在每一個語音產出之前與之後，所有的肌肉是舒張的話(為了討論的需要)，那麼這個矩陣指出，為了要發出soundⅠ，必須要收縮肌肉a,c,d和e，要發出sound Ⅱ，必須收縮肌肉a,b,c,f，以此類推。
If the respective muscles are to be ready to contract simultaneously, that is, the motor action is to come in time to produce a given sound, impulses to some of the muscles will have to be fired earlier than others. Suppose we grouped all muscles into classes, alpha, beta, gamma, delta, in accordance with the time it takes impulses to reach them from the brain stem; the alpha class of muscles has an activation latency that is four time as long as the delta class, and beta and gamma three and two times as long respectively. *This is the operation performed in Fig. 3. 11. Since the activation latency is constant for each muscle, all entries in a given row in Fig. 3.10 are equally affected by it. The classification of muscles in Fig. 3.11 allows us to rearrange the entries of Fig. 3.10 in such a way as to show which muscular event must occur at which point in time (assuming equal duration of all sounds). All we need to do is to shift each row leftward by a given factor, and now we have a matrix in which the columns are consecutive time segments. This matrix indicates that if a string of sounds I to VI is to be produced consecutively and if the muscles fall into latency classes as shown to the left of the matrix, then the first neuronal event to occur is the firing of impulses for contraction of muscle e during time segment 1; the next event during time segment 2, is contraction of muscles b and c, but relaxation of e. During the following time segment, muscles b, c, d, and e must be contracted, but not f; and so forth down the dimension of time, that is, down the columns from left to right.
如果個別的肌肉必須要準備好同時收縮，也就是說運動活動(motor action)要及時產出一個特定的語音，流向某些肌肉的神經衝動得要較早發出。假諾我們把所有肌肉按照神經衝動到達它們的時間分組為alpha, beta, gamma, delta四組，alpha組的肌肉激活延遲所需時間四倍於delta組，而beta組和gamma組個自為三倍和兩倍。這是圖3.1呈現的作用。因為激活延遲對於每個肌肉是恒定的，所以會相同地影響特定一列的全部項目。圖3.11中的肌肉分類讓我們得以重新安排圖3.10來表明在哪個時點上，哪個肌肉事件必定會出現(假設所有語音有相同的長度)。我們只需要把每一列往左移動特定的數量，於是我們就有了一個矩陣，在這之中欄位是連續的時間區塊。這個矩陣指出，如果要連續地發出一串從I to VI的語音，同時，如果涉及的肌肉在延遲分類落內矩陣的左端，那麼將發生的第一個神經事件是在時間區塊1發出肌肉e收縮的神經衝動；在時間區塊2發生的下一個事件是是肌肉b和c的收縮，但肌肉e舒張了。在接下來的時間區塊當中肌肉b,c,d和必須收縮，但f不需要；在時間面向上以此類推，也就是說，自左至右窮盡每一欄。
LB393T伊津
Recognition of syntactic patterns cannot be accomplished on basis of probability statistics (Chomsky and Miller, 1963; Chomsky 1963; Miller and Chomsky, 1963). The rules that underly syntax (which are the same for understanding and speaking) are of a very specific kind, and unless man or mechanical devices do their processing of incoming sentences in accordance with these rules, the logical, formal, analysis of the input will be deficient, resulting in incorrect or random responses. When we say rules must have been built into the grammatical analyzer, we impute the existence of an apparatus with specific structure properties or, in other words, a spectic internal organization.辨示句法樣式不能以機率統計為基礎而達成(Chomsky and Miller, 1963; Chomsky 1963; Miller and Chomsky, 1963)，構成句法之基礎的規則(和用來理解和說話的規則相同)屬於一種非常特定的規則，除非人類或者是機械儀器按照這些規則來處理接收到的句子，對於這些輸入的邏輯、形式的分析將會是不足的，因而導致不正確或者隨機的反應。當我們說規則必須內建於語法分析器時，我們設想存在一個器官，它具有特定結構的特性，或者換言之，具有特定的內在組織。In a certain sense all organisms are self-organizing systems. And, therefore, the question that faces us is, “What is the degree of freedom with which the specific organization necessary for language processing comes into being.” If the freedom were unlimited, the nature of man would unlimited in its capacities. This must be rejected for obvious reasons. There is no other organism with unlimited capacities and we no longer believe that man is different from other creatures in such fundamental ways. In fact, there is no possible way in which we could think of a device, natural or artificial, that is free from all structural limitations. At best we may assume that a certain mechanism has the capacity to organize itself in more than one way (that is, depending on certain conditions of input, it may eventually be operating in any one of a number of possible modes). This formulation makes it clear that in any case we must assume a biological matrix with specifiable characteristics that determines the outcome of any treatment to which the organism is subjected. Thus the search for innate properties is well within the scope biological inquiry.在某種意義上，所有的有機體都是自我組織的系統。於是，我們面對的問題就是，”一個特定的組織得要有什麼樣的自由度，才能夠處理語言。”如果這項自由度沒有設限的話，那麼人類的天性會有無限的能力。這種情形基於一些很明顯的理由會被駁斥。世上沒有其他有機體具有無限制的能力，而我們也不再相信人類和其他生物有什麼根本上的不同。事實上，我們找不到可能的方法去設想出一個裝置能夠免於所有結構上的限制，無論其屬於自然或人工的。我們最多只能推想有某種機制，它有能力以不只一種方式來組織自己(也就是說，根據某些輸入的條件，它最終會以許多可能模式中的一種來運作)。這個構想說明了，在任何情況下，我們都必須假設有一個生物學的矩陣，它具有可加以特定的特徵，而這樣的特徵可以決定有機物所受的任何遭遇會有何結果。於是，對於內在能力的探索是包含在生物學研究的範圍之內。
Each row corresponds to a specific muscle, label from a to f. Naturally, there are many more muscles involved in the speech act, just as an utterance consists usually of more than six speech sounds. This is merely a schema. A plus sign means contraction, zero means relaxation. If we assume silence and relaxation of all muscles before and after the production of each sound (for the sake of discussion), the matrix indicates that in order to produce soundⅠit will be necessary to contract muscles a, c, d, and e, for sound Ⅱ muscles a, b, c, f, etc.每一列對應到一個特定的肌肉，標記從a到f。當然有更多肌肉涉及了說話的動作，就如同說話通常是由多於六個語音組成。這只是一個圖式。加號意指收縮，0意指舒張。如果我們假設在每一個語音產出之前與之後，所有的肌肉是舒張的話(為了討論的需要)，那麼這個矩陣指出，為了要發出soundⅠ，必須要收縮肌肉a,c,d和e，要發出sound Ⅱ，必須收縮肌肉a,b,c,f，以此類推。
If the respective muscles are to be ready to contract simultaneously, that is, the motor action is to come in time to produce a given sound, impulses to some of the muscles will have to be fired earlier than others. Suppose we grouped all muscles into classes, alpha, beta, gamma, delta, in accordance with the time it takes impulses to reach them from the brain stem; the alpha class of muscles has an activation latency that is four time as long as the delta class, and beta and gamma three and two times as long respectively. *This is the operation performed in Fig. 3. 11. Since the activation latency is constant for each muscle, all entries in a given row in Fig. 3.10 are equally affected by it. The classification of muscles in Fig. 3.11 allows us to rearrange the entries of Fig. 3.10 in such a way as to show which muscular event must occur at which point in time (assuming equal duration of all sounds). All we need to do is to shift each row leftward by a given factor, and now we have a matrix in which the columns are consecutive time segments. This matrix indicates that if a string of sounds I to VI is to be produced consecutively and if the muscles fall into latency classes as shown to the left of the matrix, then the first neuronal event to occur is the firing of impulses for contraction of muscle e during time segment 1; the next event during time segment 2, is contraction of muscles b and c, but relaxation of e. During the following time segment, muscles b, c, d, and e must be contracted, but not f; and so forth down the dimension of time, that is, down the columns from left to right.
如果個別的肌肉必須要準備好同時收縮，也就是說運動活動(motor action)要及時產出一個特定的語音，流向某些肌肉的神經衝動得要較早發出。假諾我們把所有肌肉按照神經衝動到達它們的時間分組為alpha, beta, gamma, delta四組，alpha組的肌肉激活延遲所需時間四倍於delta組，而beta組和gamma組個自為三倍和兩倍。這是圖3.1呈現的作用。因為激活延遲對於每個肌肉是恒定的，所以會相同地影響特定一列的全部項目。圖3.11中的肌肉分類讓我們得以重新安排圖3.10來表明在哪個時點上，哪個肌肉事件必定會出現(假設所有語音有相同的長度)。我們只需要把每一列往左移動特定的數量，於是我們就有了一個矩陣，在這之中欄位是連續的時間區塊。這個矩陣指出，如果要連續地發出一串從I to VI的語音，同時，如果涉及的肌肉在延遲分類落內矩陣的左端，那麼將發生的第一個神經事件是在時間區塊1發出肌肉e收縮的神經衝動；在時間區塊2發生的下一個事件是是肌肉b和c的收縮，但肌肉e舒張了。在接下來的時間區塊當中肌肉b,c,d和必須收縮，但f不需要；在時間面向上以此類推，也就是說，自左至右窮盡每一欄。
LB393T伊津
Recognition of syntactic patterns cannot be accomplished on basis of probability statistics (Chomsky and Miller, 1963; Chomsky 1963; Miller and Chomsky, 1963). The rules that underly syntax (which are the same for understanding and speaking) are of a very specific kind, and unless man or mechanical devices do their processing of incoming sentences in accordance with these rules, the logical, formal, analysis of the input will be deficient, resulting in incorrect or random responses. When we say rules must have been built into the grammatical analyzer, we impute the existence of an apparatus with specific structure properties or, in other words, a spectic internal organization.辨示句法樣式不能以機率統計為基礎而達成(Chomsky and Miller, 1963; Chomsky 1963; Miller and Chomsky, 1963)，構成句法之基礎的規則(和用來理解和說話的規則相同)屬於一種非常特定的規則，除非人類或者是機械儀器按照這些規則來處理接收到的句子，對於這些輸入的邏輯、形式的分析將會是不足的，因而導致不正確或者隨機的反應。當我們說規則必須內建於語法分析器時，我們設想存在一個器官，它具有特定結構的特性，或者換言之，具有特定的內在組織。In a certain sense all organisms are self-organizing systems. And, therefore, the question that faces us is, “What is the degree of freedom with which the specific organization necessary for language processing comes into being.” If the freedom were unlimited, the nature of man would unlimited in its capacities. This must be rejected for obvious reasons. There is no other organism with unlimited capacities and we no longer believe that man is different from other creatures in such fundamental ways. In fact, there is no possible way in which we could think of a device, natural or artificial, that is free from all structural limitations. At best we may assume that a certain mechanism has the capacity to organize itself in more than one way (that is, depending on certain conditions of input, it may eventually be operating in any one of a number of possible modes). This formulation makes it clear that in any case we must assume a biological matrix with specifiable characteristics that determines the outcome of any treatment to which the organism is subjected. Thus the search for innate properties is well within the scope biological inquiry.在某種意義上，所有的有機體都是自我組織的系統。於是，我們面對的問題就是，”一個特定的組織得要有什麼樣的自由度，才能夠處理語言。”如果這項自由度沒有設限的話，那麼人類的天性會有無限的能力。這種情形基於一些很明顯的理由會被駁斥。世上沒有其他有機體具有無限制的能力，而我們也不再相信人類和其他生物有什麼根本上的不同。事實上，我們找不到可能的方法去設想出一個裝置能夠免於所有結構上的限制，無論其屬於自然或人工的。我們最多只能推想有某種機制，它有能力以不只一種方式來組織自己(也就是說，根據某些輸入的條件，它最終會以許多可能模式中的一種來運作)。這個構想說明了，在任何情況下，我們都必須假設有一個生物學的矩陣，它具有可加以特定的特徵，而這樣的特徵可以決定有機物所受的任何遭遇會有何結果。於是，對於內在能力的探索是包含在生物學研究的範圍之內。
LB099T伊津
LB099T伊津
Lashley was aware of the physiological nature of the problem and discussed it in considerable detail. He advanced an argument against chain association which has been referred to frequently but which, by itself, could be explained away by proposing certain theoretical constructs. He argued that the motor events in certain fast skills, such as playing the piano or snapping the fingers, follow one another at such a fast rate that there would be no time for neural messages to go from the periphery to the brain and there elicit the next response. From Table 3.4 we may deduce that this argument also holds to a certain extent for the rate of speech movements. But auditory feedback greatly speeds up reafferentation and thus minimizes the time problem even though it does not eliminate it. Theoretically, however, this aspect of the problem is not unsurmountable if we assume, as we believe mediation theory does, that the sequential association is between events entirely contained within the brain. Suppose nervous event A triggered nervous event B, both in the cortex of the left hemisphere; now the conduction time between these cortical events would be negligible. This assumption is neurologically naïve (see Chapter Five) and it also does not overcome other, more fundamental objections to the associational model, namely to explain every speaker’s ability to anticipate events yet to come.
Lashley察覺這個問題有生物學的本質，並且作了詳盡的討論。他提出一個論證來反對鏈型組合，鏈型組合雖然時常被提及，但是其本身可以藉由某些理論建構的提出來作解釋以反駁之。他主張在某些高速技巧中的運動事件(像是彈鋼琴或是彈手指)，以這麼高的速率一個接一個發生，以至於神經訊息不會有時間從周邊回到大腦而能夠引發下一個反應。從表3.4我們可以推論出這樣的論點在某程度上對於說話速度的速率也能成立。但是聽覺回饋大大地加速了reafferentation於是將時間的問題最小化，即便沒有完全消除。然而，理論上，此問題的這一面向並非無法克服，只要我們假設接續性的組合是處在全然發生在大腦中的事件之間，如同我們相信默想理論也是如此。假設神經事件A誘發神經事件B，而這兩者都在左半腦的皮質上；現在這些皮質事件之間的傳導時間會是可以忽略的。這個假設在神經科學上是天真的(見第五章)而且也不能克服其它對於組合式模型更基本的異議，亦即解釋所有說話者預測尚未發生事件的能力。
We may illustrate the problem in this way: let us think of a speech act (such as repeating any given word) as an assembly of four distinct processes as shown in Fig. 3.9. In the first process acoustic energy variations are received and analyzed into language-function units called phonemes. The details of this process need not concern us here. In the second process an inventory is made of all the muscle which enter into the production of each speech sound. (These processes are, of course, not “real physiological events” but theoretical stages that help us visualize the complications of speech production.) A more detailed diagram of the second process is shown in Fig. 3.10. Each column represents one speech sound.
我們也許可以用這樣的方式來說明這個問題：讓我們把一個說話的動作(像是重覆任一個給定的詞)想成是四個不同的過程(如圖3.9所示)。在第一個過程當中，聲的差異被接收到而且被分析為語言-功能單位，稱之為音位。在此我們不需要關注這個過程的細節。在第二個過程中，產生了所有參與語音產出的所有肌肉的清單。(當然，這些過程不是”實際上的生理學事件”，而是幫助我們把語言產生的紛雜具像化的理論性階段。)有關第二個過程更詳細的圖表可見於圖3.10。每一欄呈現了一個語音。
Lashley was aware of the physiological nature of the problem and discussed it in considerable detail. He advanced an argument against chain association which has been referred to frequently but which, by itself, could be explained away by proposing certain theoretical constructs. He argued that the motor events in certain fast skills, such as playing the piano or snapping the fingers, follow one another at such a fast rate that there would be no time for neural messages to go from the periphery to the brain and there elicit the next response. From Table 3.4 we may deduce that this argument also holds to a certain extent for the rate of speech movements. But auditory feedback greatly speeds up reafferentation and thus minimizes the time problem even though it does not eliminate it. Theoretically, however, this aspect of the problem is not unsurmountable if we assume, as we believe mediation theory does, that the sequential association is between events entirely contained within the brain. Suppose nervous event A triggered nervous event B, both in the cortex of the left hemisphere; now the conduction time between these cortical events would be negligible. This assumption is neurologically naïve (see Chapter Five) and it also does not overcome other, more fundamental objections to the associational model, namely to explain every speaker’s ability to anticipate events yet to come.
Lashley察覺這個問題有生物學的本質，並且作了詳盡的討論。他提出一個論證來反對鏈型組合，鏈型組合雖然時常被提及，但是其本身可以藉由某些理論建構的提出來作解釋以反駁之。他主張在某些高速技巧中的運動事件(像是彈鋼琴或是彈手指)，以這麼高的速率一個接一個發生，以至於神經訊息不會有時間從周邊回到大腦而能夠引發下一個反應。從表3.4我們可以推論出這樣的論點在某程度上對於說話速度的速率也能成立。但是聽覺回饋大大地加速了reafferentation於是將時間的問題最小化，即便沒有完全消除。然而，理論上，此問題的這一面向並非無法克服，只要我們假設接續性的組合是處在全然發生在大腦中的事件之間，如同我們相信默想理論也是如此。假設神經事件A誘發神經事件B，而這兩者都在左半腦的皮質上；現在這些皮質事件之間的傳導時間會是可以忽略的。這個假設在神經科學上是天真的(見第五章)而且也不能克服其它對於組合式模型更基本的異議，亦即解釋所有說話者預測尚未發生事件的能力。
We may illustrate the problem in this way: let us think of a speech act (such as repeating any given word) as an assembly of four distinct processes as shown in Fig. 3.9. In the first process acoustic energy variations are received and analyzed into language-function units called phonemes. The details of this process need not concern us here. In the second process an inventory is made of all the muscle which enter into the production of each speech sound. (These processes are, of course, not “real physiological events” but theoretical stages that help us visualize the complications of speech production.) A more detailed diagram of the second process is shown in Fig. 3.10. Each column represents one speech sound.
我們也許可以用這樣的方式來說明這個問題：讓我們把一個說話的動作(像是重覆任一個給定的詞)想成是四個不同的過程(如圖3.9所示)。在第一個過程當中，聲的差異被接收到而且被分析為語言-功能單位，稱之為音位。在此我們不需要關注這個過程的細節。在第二個過程中，產生了所有參與語音產出的所有肌肉的清單。(當然，這些過程不是”實際上的生理學事件”，而是幫助我們把語言產生的紛雜具像化的理論性階段。)有關第二個過程更詳細的圖表可見於圖3.10。每一欄呈現了一個語音。
LB 98 伊津 IV. PROBLEM ARISING FROM RATE AND ORDERING
IV. PROBLEM ARISING FROM RATE AND ORDERING
Karl Lashley(1951) was the first to recognize clearly the problems raised by the fast rate of movements and the ordering of motor events; the solution presented here is essentially similar to this.
Karl Lashley(1951)第一個清楚地認識到由於動作快速的頻率和運動事作的排序所引起的問題；這裡提出的解決方案本質與此相似。We have postulated some automatisms that are responsible for the fast sequence of movements in speech (as well as many other type of motor behavior). What might the nature of such automatism be? Could it be an associative sequential process? Disregarding for the time being our inability to define association neurophysiologically, from a logical point of view, let us see whether temporal association might account for the facts. The formal characteristic of the associational automatism to be considered is that events occur in chains. For instance, a stimulus is followed by a response; the response then acts as a new stimulus (perhaps because the subject has heard himself say something or feels his own muscles move) which in turn elicits another response; this again becomes a stimulus which is followed by a response, and thus a chain reaction is produced.
我們已假設某些自動作用是說話中快速的連串動作(也是其他類型的運動的原因)的原因。這樣的自動作用的本質為何?它可能是組合性的連續過程嗎?暫且不管我們不能就神經生理學上來定義組合(association), 從一個邏輯的觀點，讓我們看看是否時間上的組合可以解釋以上的事實。我們要考慮的組合性自動作用的形式特徵是事件的發生像是一連串。舉例來說，一個刺激之後跟著一個反應，這個反應接著又作為一個新的刺激(或許是因為受試者已經聽到自己說了什麼或者感覺自己的肌肉有動作)，而這個新的刺激接著又引發另一個反應；這個新的反應又再度成為一個刺激，而後又跟一個反應，於是一個連鎖反應就發生了。
Generally speaking, any one event is triggered by one or more events that had preceded it. For instance, in the application of this principle to phonology, one phoneme is thought to heighten the probability of producing a given other one (by virtue of earlier temporal contiguity in the experience of the organism); but once a phoneme has been produced, it cannot be modified, logically, by phonemes yet to come. Thus this model (let us call it the sequential chain model) may account for modifications or occurrences ”down stream,” namely as consequences of earlier articulatory or phonological events; however, it is unable to account for the phenomenon of anticipation. Nevertheless, articulatory anticipation is a reality as indicated by the pathological example cited previously, and there are cogent physiological reasons that force us to adopt a model that can account as easily for anticipation in articulatory output as modification due to earlier occurrences.一般而言，任一事件都是由該事件之前的一項或者更多的事件所觸發。舉例來說，這項原則如應用於音韻學中，一個音位會被認為提高發出另一個特定音位的機率(by virtue of earlier temporal contiguity in the experience of the organism)；然而一旦一個音位已被發出，邏輯上來說，它就不能被尚未發出的音位調整。因此這個模型(讓我們稱之為連續鏈模型)可以解釋下游的調整和事件，也就是作為較早的發音或音韻事件的結果；然而，它並不能解釋預期同化(anticipation)的現象。不過，發音的預期同化，如同先前引用的病理案例指出，是一個事實，而且有確切的生理學理由促使我們採用一個模型，它不但可以輕易地解釋發音產出的預期同化也可以解釋基於較早事件而來的調整。The reality of anticipation is best seen in the fact that a given initial sound, say /k/ has different acoustic qualities (in English) if followed by an /i/ than when followed by an /u/. Chomsky (1957) has also shown that a sequential chain model is incapable of accounting for almost any aspect of syntax (see Chapter Seven and Appendix), but here we are more concerned with physiological reasons for rejecting the sequential chain model.
預期同化(anticipation)的現實於以下的事實可以最清楚的看出來，一個給定的起始音，像是/k/，其後的音是/i/或/u/會有不同的聲學性質(在英語的情形中)。Chomsky (1957)也已指出一個連續鏈狀的模型幾乎無法解釋句法的任何方面，但是，我們在此更關注的是能夠駁斥連續鏈狀模型的生理學理由。
Karl Lashley(1951) was the first to recognize clearly the problems raised by the fast rate of movements and the ordering of motor events; the solution presented here is essentially similar to this.
Karl Lashley(1951)第一個清楚地認識到由於動作快速的頻率和運動事作的排序所引起的問題；這裡提出的解決方案本質與此相似。We have postulated some automatisms that are responsible for the fast sequence of movements in speech (as well as many other type of motor behavior). What might the nature of such automatism be? Could it be an associative sequential process? Disregarding for the time being our inability to define association neurophysiologically, from a logical point of view, let us see whether temporal association might account for the facts. The formal characteristic of the associational automatism to be considered is that events occur in chains. For instance, a stimulus is followed by a response; the response then acts as a new stimulus (perhaps because the subject has heard himself say something or feels his own muscles move) which in turn elicits another response; this again becomes a stimulus which is followed by a response, and thus a chain reaction is produced.
我們已假設某些自動作用是說話中快速的連串動作(也是其他類型的運動的原因)的原因。這樣的自動作用的本質為何?它可能是組合性的連續過程嗎?暫且不管我們不能就神經生理學上來定義組合(association), 從一個邏輯的觀點，讓我們看看是否時間上的組合可以解釋以上的事實。我們要考慮的組合性自動作用的形式特徵是事件的發生像是一連串。舉例來說，一個刺激之後跟著一個反應，這個反應接著又作為一個新的刺激(或許是因為受試者已經聽到自己說了什麼或者感覺自己的肌肉有動作)，而這個新的刺激接著又引發另一個反應；這個新的反應又再度成為一個刺激，而後又跟一個反應，於是一個連鎖反應就發生了。
Generally speaking, any one event is triggered by one or more events that had preceded it. For instance, in the application of this principle to phonology, one phoneme is thought to heighten the probability of producing a given other one (by virtue of earlier temporal contiguity in the experience of the organism); but once a phoneme has been produced, it cannot be modified, logically, by phonemes yet to come. Thus this model (let us call it the sequential chain model) may account for modifications or occurrences ”down stream,” namely as consequences of earlier articulatory or phonological events; however, it is unable to account for the phenomenon of anticipation. Nevertheless, articulatory anticipation is a reality as indicated by the pathological example cited previously, and there are cogent physiological reasons that force us to adopt a model that can account as easily for anticipation in articulatory output as modification due to earlier occurrences.一般而言，任一事件都是由該事件之前的一項或者更多的事件所觸發。舉例來說，這項原則如應用於音韻學中，一個音位會被認為提高發出另一個特定音位的機率(by virtue of earlier temporal contiguity in the experience of the organism)；然而一旦一個音位已被發出，邏輯上來說，它就不能被尚未發出的音位調整。因此這個模型(讓我們稱之為連續鏈模型)可以解釋下游的調整和事件，也就是作為較早的發音或音韻事件的結果；然而，它並不能解釋預期同化(anticipation)的現象。不過，發音的預期同化，如同先前引用的病理案例指出，是一個事實，而且有確切的生理學理由促使我們採用一個模型，它不但可以輕易地解釋發音產出的預期同化也可以解釋基於較早事件而來的調整。The reality of anticipation is best seen in the fact that a given initial sound, say /k/ has different acoustic qualities (in English) if followed by an /i/ than when followed by an /u/. Chomsky (1957) has also shown that a sequential chain model is incapable of accounting for almost any aspect of syntax (see Chapter Seven and Appendix), but here we are more concerned with physiological reasons for rejecting the sequential chain model.
預期同化(anticipation)的現實於以下的事實可以最清楚的看出來，一個給定的起始音，像是/k/，其後的音是/i/或/u/會有不同的聲學性質(在英語的情形中)。Chomsky (1957)也已指出一個連續鏈狀的模型幾乎無法解釋句法的任何方面，但是，我們在此更關注的是能夠駁斥連續鏈狀模型的生理學理由。
2008年10月1日 星期三
Ernst Walter Mayr
Ernst Walter Mayr (July 5, 1904, Kempten, Germany – February 3, 2005, Bedford, Massachusetts U.S.), was one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary biologists. He was also a renowned taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, historian of science, and naturalist. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the modern evolutionary synthesis of Mendelian genetics, systematics, and Darwinian evolution, and to the development of the biological species concept.
Neither Darwin nor anyone else in his time knew the answer to the species problem: how multiple species could evolve from a single common ancestor. Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a new definition for the concept species. In his book Systematics and the Origin of Species (1942) he wrote that a species is not just a group of morphologically similar individuals, but a group that can breed only among themselves, excluding all others. When populations of organisms get isolated, the sub-populations will start to differ by genetic drift and natural selection over a period of time, and thereby evolve into new species. The most significant and rapid genetic reorganization occurs in extremely small populations that have been isolated (as on islands).
His theory of peripatric speciation (a more precise form of allopatric speciation which he advanced) based on his work on birds, is still considered a leading mode of speciation, and was the theoretical underpinning for the theory of punctuated equilibrium. Mayr is generally credited with inventing the modern philosophy of biology, particularly of evolutionary biology, which he distinguished from physics, for its introduction of (natural) history into science.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mayr
http://www.bookrags.com/biography/ernst-mayr/
http://www.stephenjaygould.org/people/ernst_mayr.html
2008年9月30日 星期二
LB462 伊津
(P.462 Para. 2 - P.462 Para. 1)
It comes about after reflexive body movements and entered man's consciousness, and after the association of perceptions with sounds. Language had not been adequatedly understood in the past, because it had been regarded solely as means of communication. It had been incorrectly assumed that man had images, thoughts and the additional ability to express these in terms of sounds. Images and thoughts were themselves based on language.
“We see now…how everything man attains at a higher level than animal consciousness and intuitions, is gained by way of language…Language is self-awareness, that is, understanding oneself… as one is understood by another. One understand oneself: that is the beginning of language”[92].
Steinthal’s work had a profound influence on the well-known internist and professor of medicine in Strasbourg, Adolf Kussmaul(1822-1902) who devoted the first fifteen chapters of his book ”On the Pathology of Language,” to define and describe languages as such. “Language may refer to the physical –mental act of the expression of thoughts, or to that which is expressed. To attempt the understanding of language as an act of expression, is the task of physiology and psychology. ”
His description of the development of language in children is remarkably perceptive: Children are born with a sense of language, an irresistible drive to express themselves. The babbling of infants is a spontaneous reflex activity, as are the uncoordinated movements of their limbs. As the child grows, it begins to listen, to differentiate sounds and to imitate words. This is not a simple process, some words the child understands without imitating them, others it imitates without understanding their meaning. In general terms, language development shows a gradual replacement of “the natural language of the child”(babbling), by the traditional language of the nation. As this is accomplished, language is removed from the spontaneous sphere and comes under the rule of will and habits. Full development of language is equivalent to expression of (conceptualized) thoughts. Once this as occurred, the child has acquired the ability to elaborate the object images connected with words into concepts [93].
Language poses a difficult problem in that it develops “without consciousness or purpose, although (later) we speak consciously and purposefully.” This need not surprise us, for most neural and mental activity is predominantly unconscious. Kussmaul thought that it would be premature to discuss language in purely physiological terms, as long as physiology was just beginning to decide on its experimental methods. It would be just as impossible to ascribe the complex function of language to simple speech center as to define a simple center of the soul [94]. 19Kussmaul’s work is remarkable for its psychological insight and its lucid elaborations on the nature of language and the problem it poses. He judged correctly the precocity of any physiological formulation and the futility of a simple hypothetical speech center where language could be localized.
[92] Steinthal, Heyman, Einleitung in die Psychologie und Sprachwissenschaft. Duemmler, Berlin, 1871, pp.42, 82-85, 369-370, 385-86
[94]Kussmaul, A., op. cit, pp.33, 110, 114, 127
It comes about after reflexive body movements and entered man's consciousness, and after the association of perceptions with sounds. Language had not been adequatedly understood in the past, because it had been regarded solely as means of communication. It had been incorrectly assumed that man had images, thoughts and the additional ability to express these in terms of sounds. Images and thoughts were themselves based on language.
“We see now…how everything man attains at a higher level than animal consciousness and intuitions, is gained by way of language…Language is self-awareness, that is, understanding oneself… as one is understood by another. One understand oneself: that is the beginning of language”[92].
Steinthal’s work had a profound influence on the well-known internist and professor of medicine in Strasbourg, Adolf Kussmaul(1822-1902) who devoted the first fifteen chapters of his book ”On the Pathology of Language,” to define and describe languages as such. “Language may refer to the physical –mental act of the expression of thoughts, or to that which is expressed. To attempt the understanding of language as an act of expression, is the task of physiology and psychology. ”
His description of the development of language in children is remarkably perceptive: Children are born with a sense of language, an irresistible drive to express themselves. The babbling of infants is a spontaneous reflex activity, as are the uncoordinated movements of their limbs. As the child grows, it begins to listen, to differentiate sounds and to imitate words. This is not a simple process, some words the child understands without imitating them, others it imitates without understanding their meaning. In general terms, language development shows a gradual replacement of “the natural language of the child”(babbling), by the traditional language of the nation. As this is accomplished, language is removed from the spontaneous sphere and comes under the rule of will and habits. Full development of language is equivalent to expression of (conceptualized) thoughts. Once this as occurred, the child has acquired the ability to elaborate the object images connected with words into concepts [93].
Language poses a difficult problem in that it develops “without consciousness or purpose, although (later) we speak consciously and purposefully.” This need not surprise us, for most neural and mental activity is predominantly unconscious. Kussmaul thought that it would be premature to discuss language in purely physiological terms, as long as physiology was just beginning to decide on its experimental methods. It would be just as impossible to ascribe the complex function of language to simple speech center as to define a simple center of the soul [94]. 19Kussmaul’s work is remarkable for its psychological insight and its lucid elaborations on the nature of language and the problem it poses. He judged correctly the precocity of any physiological formulation and the futility of a simple hypothetical speech center where language could be localized.
[92] Steinthal, Heyman, Einleitung in die Psychologie und Sprachwissenschaft. Duemmler, Berlin, 1871, pp.42, 82-85, 369-370, 385-86
[94]Kussmaul, A., op. cit, pp.33, 110, 114, 127
LB393 伊津
(p.393 para. 3)
Recognition of syntactic patterns cannot be accomplished on basis of probability statistics (Chomsky and Miller, 1963; Chomsky 1963; Miller and Chomsky, 1963). The rules that underly syntax (which are the same for understanding and speaking) are of a very specific kind, and unless man or mechanical devices do their processing of incoming sentences in accordance with these rules, the logical, formal, analysis of the input will be deficient, resulting in incorrect or random responses. When we say rules must have been built into the grammatical analyzer, we impute the existence of an apparatus with specific structure properties or, in other words, a spectic internal organization.
In a certain sense all organisms are self-organizing systems. And, therefore, the question that faces us is, “What is the degree of freedom with which the specific organization necessary for language processing comes into being.” If the freedom were unlimited, the nature of man would unlimited in its capacities. This must be rejected for obvious reasons. There is no other organism with unlimited capacities and we no longer believe that man in different from other creatures in such fundamental ways. In fact, there is no possible way in which we could think of a device, natural or artificial, that is free from all structural limitations. At best we may assume that a certain mechanism has the capacity to organize itself in more than one way (that is, depending on certain conditions of input, it may eventually be operating in any one of a number of possible modes). This formulation makes it clear that in any case we must assume a biological matrix with specifiable characteristics that determines the outcome of any treatment to which the organism is subjected. Thus the search for innate properties is well within the scope biological inquiry.
Recognition of syntactic patterns cannot be accomplished on basis of probability statistics (Chomsky and Miller, 1963; Chomsky 1963; Miller and Chomsky, 1963). The rules that underly syntax (which are the same for understanding and speaking) are of a very specific kind, and unless man or mechanical devices do their processing of incoming sentences in accordance with these rules, the logical, formal, analysis of the input will be deficient, resulting in incorrect or random responses. When we say rules must have been built into the grammatical analyzer, we impute the existence of an apparatus with specific structure properties or, in other words, a spectic internal organization.
In a certain sense all organisms are self-organizing systems. And, therefore, the question that faces us is, “What is the degree of freedom with which the specific organization necessary for language processing comes into being.” If the freedom were unlimited, the nature of man would unlimited in its capacities. This must be rejected for obvious reasons. There is no other organism with unlimited capacities and we no longer believe that man in different from other creatures in such fundamental ways. In fact, there is no possible way in which we could think of a device, natural or artificial, that is free from all structural limitations. At best we may assume that a certain mechanism has the capacity to organize itself in more than one way (that is, depending on certain conditions of input, it may eventually be operating in any one of a number of possible modes). This formulation makes it clear that in any case we must assume a biological matrix with specifiable characteristics that determines the outcome of any treatment to which the organism is subjected. Thus the search for innate properties is well within the scope biological inquiry.
2008年9月24日 星期三
Preface
Preface
Ideas do not grow in vacuo. Throughout my fifteen years of residence in the Cambridge area, I have greatly profited from courses taken and given, from conversations, and from general interaction with colleagues and students. I wish to mention particularly Georg v. Békésy, Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, and Peter Wolff. All of them have discussed various aspects of this book with me, and most have read and commented upon several chapters or the entire manuscript. I am also indebted to Hans-Lukas Teuber for critically reading Chapters one and five; to A. H Schultz and George Erikson for advising me on Chapter two; to Philip Liberman and Arthur House for commenting on Chapter three; to M. Kinsbourne for reading chapter four; to Charles Gross and Peter Huttenlocher for criticisms of Chapter five; to H. Burla, Hans Kalmus, and Ernst Mayr for reading various versions of Chapter six; and to DeLee Lantz for comments and criticisms on Chapter eight.
想法並非憑空而來。住在劍橋的期間，上課與聽課時與同事和學生的交流，使我獲益良多。我要特別感謝Georg v. Békésy,Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, 還有 Peter Wolff。 他們皆與我討論過書中的許多部份，大多數人曾評論或閱讀過好幾個章節或整個手稿。我也要感謝Hans-Lukas Teuber，謝謝他對第一章和第五章的批評指教; 還要感謝 A. H Schultz 和 George Erikson， 他們給了許多第二章的建議;感謝 Philip Liberman and Arthur House 評論了第三章; 感謝 M. Kinsbourne閱讀第四章; 感謝Charles Gross和 Peter Huttenlocher 對第五章的批評; 感謝H. Burla, Hans Kalmus和 Ernst Mayr 閱讀了第六章的各個版本;感謝 DeLee Lantz 對第八章的評論與批評。
Ideas do not grow in vacuo. Throughout my fifteen years of residence in the Cambridge area, I have greatly profited from courses taken and given, from conversations, and from general interaction with colleagues and students. I wish to mention particularly Georg v. Békésy, Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, and Peter Wolff. All of them have discussed various aspects of this book with me, and most have read and commented upon several chapters or the entire manuscript. I am also indebted to Hans-Lukas Teuber for critically reading Chapters one and five; to A. H Schultz and George Erikson for advising me on Chapter two; to Philip Liberman and Arthur House for commenting on Chapter three; to M. Kinsbourne for reading chapter four; to Charles Gross and Peter Huttenlocher for criticisms of Chapter five; to H. Burla, Hans Kalmus, and Ernst Mayr for reading various versions of Chapter six; and to DeLee Lantz for comments and criticisms on Chapter eight.
想法並非憑空而來。住在劍橋的期間，上課與聽課時與同事和學生的交流，使我獲益良多。我要特別感謝Georg v. Békésy,Roger Brown, Jerome Bruner, Noam Chomsky, George Gardner, George Miller, 還有 Peter Wolff。 他們皆與我討論過書中的許多部份，大多數人曾評論或閱讀過好幾個章節或整個手稿。我也要感謝Hans-Lukas Teuber，謝謝他對第一章和第五章的批評指教; 還要感謝 A. H Schultz 和 George Erikson， 他們給了許多第二章的建議;感謝 Philip Liberman and Arthur House 評論了第三章; 感謝 M. Kinsbourne閱讀第四章; 感謝Charles Gross和 Peter Huttenlocher 對第五章的批評; 感謝H. Burla, Hans Kalmus和 Ernst Mayr 閱讀了第六章的各個版本;感謝 DeLee Lantz 對第八章的評論與批評。
Jerome Bruner
Jerome Seymour Bruner (born 1 October 1915) is an American psychologist who has contributed to cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology and to the general philosophy of education. Bruner is currently a senior research fellow at the New York University School of Law. Bruner's ideas are based on categorization. "To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize." Bruner maintains people interpret the world in terms of its similarities and differences. Like Bloom's Taxonomy, Bruner suggests a system of coding in which people form a hierarchical arrangement of related categories. Each successively higher level of categories becomes more specific, echoing Benjamin Bloom's understanding of knowledge acquisition as well as the related idea of instructional scaffolding.
He has also suggested that there are two primary modes of thought: the narrative mode and the paradigmatic mode. In narrative thinking, the mind engages in sequential, action-oriented, detail-driven thought. In paradigmatic thinking, the mind transcends particularities to achieve systematic, categorical cognition. In the former case, thinking takes the form of stories and "gripping drama." In the latter, thinking is structured as propositions linked by logical operators.
In his research on the development of children (1966), Bruner proposed three modes of representation: enactive representation (action-based), iconic representation (image-based), and symbolic representation (language-based). Rather than neatly delineated stages, the modes of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other. Symbolic representation remains the ultimate mode, for it "is clearly the most mysterious of the three." Bruner's theory suggests it is efficacious when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner (even of a very young age) is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists. (Driscoll, Marcy). He received his B.A. in 1937 and his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1941 under the guidance of Gordon Allport.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner
http://au.geocities.com/vanunoo/Humannature/bruner.html
He has also suggested that there are two primary modes of thought: the narrative mode and the paradigmatic mode. In narrative thinking, the mind engages in sequential, action-oriented, detail-driven thought. In paradigmatic thinking, the mind transcends particularities to achieve systematic, categorical cognition. In the former case, thinking takes the form of stories and "gripping drama." In the latter, thinking is structured as propositions linked by logical operators.
In his research on the development of children (1966), Bruner proposed three modes of representation: enactive representation (action-based), iconic representation (image-based), and symbolic representation (language-based). Rather than neatly delineated stages, the modes of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other. Symbolic representation remains the ultimate mode, for it "is clearly the most mysterious of the three." Bruner's theory suggests it is efficacious when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner (even of a very young age) is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists. (Driscoll, Marcy). He received his B.A. in 1937 and his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1941 under the guidance of Gordon Allport.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner
http://au.geocities.com/vanunoo/Humannature/bruner.html
2008年7月1日 星期二
Ch. 20
20.1
1.SLIP
2. What is the cause of lexical bias?
(1) Feedback of activation between phonemes and words
(2) Self-monitoring of inner speech rejeting and correcting non-words more often than real words
3. Researchers in the feedback camp
4. Researchers in the self-monitoring camp
5. The aim of this chapter :
(1) Problems and suggestions
(2) Present a new view
(3) Re-analysis of some data
1.SLIP
2. What is the cause of lexical bias?
(1) Feedback of activation between phonemes and words
(2) Self-monitoring of inner speech rejeting and correcting non-words more often than real words
3. Researchers in the feedback camp
4. Researchers in the self-monitoring camp
5. The aim of this chapter :
(1) Problems and suggestions
(2) Present a new view
(3) Re-analysis of some data
2008年6月26日 星期四
Part V: Phonotactic and Phonological Knowledge
19. What’s in CVC-like Thing? ……….Natural Language Processing Enabling machines to understand and respond to what people mean, so they can interact with a computer naturally – without having to adapt their behavior to a computer's limitations.
Resolving ambiguities in written and spoken language requires analyzing grammar, concepts, context, and human knowledge. For example:
"The company is ready to sell” is not easy for a computer to understand because the sentence is syntactically ambiguous – is the company opening for business, or does it want to be acquired?
Resolving this ambiguity requires understanding the context: is the sentence in the middle of an article on mergers and acquisitions? Or is the sentence followed by “Its shelves are stocked with all the hot products"? This succeeding sentence is helpful only if the computer understands that the possessive pronoun “its” refers to the company, and that “stocked” and “products” are more relevant to selling goods than to being acquired.
19.1
-Sound produced
-Physical construct
-Language and linguistic structure
19.1.1 Language as a formal system
-language and linguistic structure as” things
-set of sentence
19.1.2 Language as physical reality
-analogous to that of electrons in physics
-stream of speech
19.1.3language as a psychological reality
-mental code
-language process
(怡萱)
19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean1. Forced-chioce version of the word-blending task:- English speakers: perferred onset-rime blends(e.g. SIEVE + FUZZ = SUZZ)- Korean speakers: perferred body-coda blends(e.g. THONG + SEM = THOM)2. Oral unit reduplication exercise:- English speakers: were better at the rime-copying task(Task #1: SAN-AN)- Korean speakers: were better at the body-copying task(Task #2: SA-SAN)19.3.2 Global sound-similarity judgments in English and Korean1. Global sound similarity judgments (SSJs):- Korean speakers: a shared initial CV that enhanced judged sound similarity ratings, while a shared fianl rime contributed no more to the similarity scores than a shared intial and final cosonant.- English speakers: the opposite to Korean speakers19.3.3 Concept formation in Korean1. Formation concept:- Korean speakers: a set of disyllabic words containing the common body sequence KA- as part of either syllable (KANG.CO / SIM.KAK) were significantly easier to identify a s a class than a set containing the common rime sequence -AK in either syllable (CAK.SIM / SIM.KAK).- English speakers: have not been tested yet19.3.4 A new list-recall task for non-literate participants:1.List recall task:- English participants: both readers and non-readers, were able to remember more names from the rime-sharing lists than from the body-sharing ones.- Korean participants: the readers and ono-readers performed in much the same way as English parcitipants.
(勝芬)
21. Experimental Methods in the ……..21.1 IntroductionPurposeTo provide answers about long consonants or geminates, using an experimental approach in the analysis of Hindi geminates.The specific topics in this chaptera) the duration of geminates and of the vowels preceding themb) long distance durational effectsc) the duration of geminates via-a-vis clusters and of the vowel preceding these.d)the syllabification of geminates and the issue of their integritye) the status of apparent geminates21.1.1 Some facts about geminates in Hindiinvolve the consonantal closuretwo separate consonantshave severe phonotactic restrictions.they occur only intervocalicallyalways preceded by the non-preipheral vowels, the short vowels21.2.2 Diachronic data on development of geminatesdue to cluster simplification in the development of Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA) from Sanskirt.
(威鈴)
21.1 Introductionlong consonants=geminatesPurpose:provide answers about long consonants or geminates, using an experimental approach in the analysis of Hindi geminates.The specific topics of this paper:(a)the duration of geminates and of the vowels preceding them(b) long distance durational effects(c)the duration of geminates vis-a-vis clusters and of the vowel preceding these(d)the syllabification of geminates and the issue of their integrity(e)the status of "apparent"geminates21.1.1 Some facts about geminates in Hindi:1.geminates involve the consonantal closure held for a longer period 2.geminates are not two separate consonants3.geminates occur only intervocalically4.geminates are always preceded by short vowels21.1.2 Diachronic data on development of geminates (1) Examples of geminate formation in the history of Indo-AryanSanskrit bhakta meal, food > Pali/Prakrit bhattaSanskrit sapta seven > Pali/Prakrit sattaSanskrit dugha-milk > MLA duddha-
(宜珊)
22. Morphophonemics and the Lexicon..
22.1 introductionTry to find a way to explain the stem-final alternation in Turkish22.2 the problemSize (length) as a categorizerWedel: neighborhood density & alternation rateConclude: Wedel’s findings cannot be meaningfully evaluated for it’s done by statistics from a dictionary.(a single-speaker corpus is a better choice)22.3 methodology: TELL and a frequency corpus22.3.1 the Turkish electronic living lexicon (TELL)Maker: University of California, BerkeleyContent: 30,000 words (25,000 headwords, 5,000 place names)Voice producer: 63-year-old standard Istanbul Turkish speakerMorphological context:NOM. caseACC. case1. person predicativePossessive caseProfessional suffix22.3.2 stem-final alternations: a snapshot from TELL22.3.3 frequency corpusMaker: Kemal Oflazer, at Sabancı University in Istanbul, TurkeyContent: 12,000,000 words22.4 frequencyRhodes’ AE Flapping and Bybee’s coronal deletionGradient alternation and semi-regularFindingsIn velar deletion: more frequent, more alternationIn voicing: less frequent, more alternation22.5 neighborhood density22.5.1 neighborhood density with a single-speaker corpus22.5.2 frequency-weighted neighborhood density22.6 cohorts22.7 etymology22.8 conclusions
(晟維)
23. How Do Listeners Compensate ……
How do listeners compensate for phonology? Eurie Shin23.1 IntroductionWords vs intended formsHow do listeners plan acoustic realizationsTwo approaches-different predictionPhonological-inference accountFeature-parsing accountCross-modal repetition priming study by Gaskell & Marslen-Wilson (1996)Gow (2002) –assimilation creates lexical ambiguityBase of feature-parsing accountGoal of the studyExamine whether listeners can cope with complete assimilationUnderlying homorganic consonant sequences as stimuliThree experiments of the study1) VCCV sequences generated by cross-splicing2) non-words of the form (C)VCCV(C)3) pseudo-compounds consisting of 2 non-words of the form (C)(V)(C)(C)VC#CVC23.2 Experiment I23.2.1 Methods7 repetitions of the original stimuli in 5 different vowel environmentsWaveform editing techniquesTaskDetermine whether the stimulus be transcribed as indicatedNon-parametrical tests23.2.2 ResultListeners accept homorganic clustersNo significant differences between coronal and velar coda responses23.2.3 DiscussionPurpose of the experimentResults-no evidence in favor of the phonological-inference accountAnother possibilityStimuli did not sound like real wordsDifference between coronal and labial coda optionsSummaryFeature-parsing account predict the resultsTentative interpretation
(Aleksandra)
Part Five: Ch 23.3~6 How do Listeners Compensate for Phonology?
Part Five: Ch 23.3~6 How do Listeners Compensate for Phonology?
23.3 Experiment 2
23.3.1 Methods
Use monomorphemic non-words in (C)VCCV(V)
A linguistically naïve female native Korean speaker recorded the stimuli
310 different items occurred twice
Ten Korean native speakers as listeners
23.3.2. Results
Listeners show high rates of correct response(96.8%) to the fillers.
23.3.3 Discussion
Goal
Whether listeners can infer the underlying forms
From phonetic homorganic clusters in non-words
Interesting result
Velar stimuli
Both /s.k/ and /p.k/ assimilate to [k.k] in natural speech
Main factors of lowering YES response
Frequency of labial-to-velar assimilation
Coronal-to-noncornoal assimilation
23.4 Experiment 3
23.4.1 Methods
Stimuli is pseudo-compounds consisting of two words
Listeners were provided transcription options
Ten Korean native speakers
23.4.2. Results
Rate of YES is 96.3%
Subject understood the task
23.4.3 Discussion
Purpose
Test the expectation
If listeners identified the initial morpheme in a new compound
Response
Higher than the previous ones
23.5 General Discussion
Subject are
preferred homorganic clusters as underlying forms
preferred coronal as targets of assimilation
Response pattern in Experiment 2 &3
Support the phonological-inference account
Listeners did not recover legal heterorganic clusters as underlying form
Result of Experiment 3
Show listeners reply more on phonological inference.
23.6 Conclusion
Goal
To test whether listeners use their phonological knowledge to infer original forms in speech recognition
Result suggest
Phonological inference is a part of the speech recognition process
(惠珍)
Resolving ambiguities in written and spoken language requires analyzing grammar, concepts, context, and human knowledge. For example:
"The company is ready to sell” is not easy for a computer to understand because the sentence is syntactically ambiguous – is the company opening for business, or does it want to be acquired?
Resolving this ambiguity requires understanding the context: is the sentence in the middle of an article on mergers and acquisitions? Or is the sentence followed by “Its shelves are stocked with all the hot products"? This succeeding sentence is helpful only if the computer understands that the possessive pronoun “its” refers to the company, and that “stocked” and “products” are more relevant to selling goods than to being acquired.
19.1
-Sound produced
-Physical construct
-Language and linguistic structure
19.1.1 Language as a formal system
-language and linguistic structure as” things
-set of sentence
19.1.2 Language as physical reality
-analogous to that of electrons in physics
-stream of speech
19.1.3language as a psychological reality
-mental code
-language process
(怡萱)
19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean1. Forced-chioce version of the word-blending task:- English speakers: perferred onset-rime blends(e.g. SIEVE + FUZZ = SUZZ)- Korean speakers: perferred body-coda blends(e.g. THONG + SEM = THOM)2. Oral unit reduplication exercise:- English speakers: were better at the rime-copying task(Task #1: SAN-AN)- Korean speakers: were better at the body-copying task(Task #2: SA-SAN)19.3.2 Global sound-similarity judgments in English and Korean1. Global sound similarity judgments (SSJs):- Korean speakers: a shared initial CV that enhanced judged sound similarity ratings, while a shared fianl rime contributed no more to the similarity scores than a shared intial and final cosonant.- English speakers: the opposite to Korean speakers19.3.3 Concept formation in Korean1. Formation concept:- Korean speakers: a set of disyllabic words containing the common body sequence KA- as part of either syllable (KANG.CO / SIM.KAK) were significantly easier to identify a s a class than a set containing the common rime sequence -AK in either syllable (CAK.SIM / SIM.KAK).- English speakers: have not been tested yet19.3.4 A new list-recall task for non-literate participants:1.List recall task:- English participants: both readers and non-readers, were able to remember more names from the rime-sharing lists than from the body-sharing ones.- Korean participants: the readers and ono-readers performed in much the same way as English parcitipants.
(勝芬)
21. Experimental Methods in the ……..21.1 IntroductionPurposeTo provide answers about long consonants or geminates, using an experimental approach in the analysis of Hindi geminates.The specific topics in this chaptera) the duration of geminates and of the vowels preceding themb) long distance durational effectsc) the duration of geminates via-a-vis clusters and of the vowel preceding these.d)the syllabification of geminates and the issue of their integritye) the status of apparent geminates21.1.1 Some facts about geminates in Hindiinvolve the consonantal closuretwo separate consonantshave severe phonotactic restrictions.they occur only intervocalicallyalways preceded by the non-preipheral vowels, the short vowels21.2.2 Diachronic data on development of geminatesdue to cluster simplification in the development of Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA) from Sanskirt.
(威鈴)
21.1 Introductionlong consonants=geminatesPurpose:provide answers about long consonants or geminates, using an experimental approach in the analysis of Hindi geminates.The specific topics of this paper:(a)the duration of geminates and of the vowels preceding them(b) long distance durational effects(c)the duration of geminates vis-a-vis clusters and of the vowel preceding these(d)the syllabification of geminates and the issue of their integrity(e)the status of "apparent"geminates21.1.1 Some facts about geminates in Hindi:1.geminates involve the consonantal closure held for a longer period 2.geminates are not two separate consonants3.geminates occur only intervocalically4.geminates are always preceded by short vowels21.1.2 Diachronic data on development of geminates (1) Examples of geminate formation in the history of Indo-AryanSanskrit bhakta meal, food > Pali/Prakrit bhattaSanskrit sapta seven > Pali/Prakrit sattaSanskrit dugha-milk > MLA duddha-
(宜珊)
22. Morphophonemics and the Lexicon..
22.1 introductionTry to find a way to explain the stem-final alternation in Turkish22.2 the problemSize (length) as a categorizerWedel: neighborhood density & alternation rateConclude: Wedel’s findings cannot be meaningfully evaluated for it’s done by statistics from a dictionary.(a single-speaker corpus is a better choice)22.3 methodology: TELL and a frequency corpus22.3.1 the Turkish electronic living lexicon (TELL)Maker: University of California, BerkeleyContent: 30,000 words (25,000 headwords, 5,000 place names)Voice producer: 63-year-old standard Istanbul Turkish speakerMorphological context:NOM. caseACC. case1. person predicativePossessive caseProfessional suffix22.3.2 stem-final alternations: a snapshot from TELL22.3.3 frequency corpusMaker: Kemal Oflazer, at Sabancı University in Istanbul, TurkeyContent: 12,000,000 words22.4 frequencyRhodes’ AE Flapping and Bybee’s coronal deletionGradient alternation and semi-regularFindingsIn velar deletion: more frequent, more alternationIn voicing: less frequent, more alternation22.5 neighborhood density22.5.1 neighborhood density with a single-speaker corpus22.5.2 frequency-weighted neighborhood density22.6 cohorts22.7 etymology22.8 conclusions
(晟維)
23. How Do Listeners Compensate ……
How do listeners compensate for phonology? Eurie Shin23.1 IntroductionWords vs intended formsHow do listeners plan acoustic realizationsTwo approaches-different predictionPhonological-inference accountFeature-parsing accountCross-modal repetition priming study by Gaskell & Marslen-Wilson (1996)Gow (2002) –assimilation creates lexical ambiguityBase of feature-parsing accountGoal of the studyExamine whether listeners can cope with complete assimilationUnderlying homorganic consonant sequences as stimuliThree experiments of the study1) VCCV sequences generated by cross-splicing2) non-words of the form (C)VCCV(C)3) pseudo-compounds consisting of 2 non-words of the form (C)(V)(C)(C)VC#CVC23.2 Experiment I23.2.1 Methods7 repetitions of the original stimuli in 5 different vowel environmentsWaveform editing techniquesTaskDetermine whether the stimulus be transcribed as indicatedNon-parametrical tests23.2.2 ResultListeners accept homorganic clustersNo significant differences between coronal and velar coda responses23.2.3 DiscussionPurpose of the experimentResults-no evidence in favor of the phonological-inference accountAnother possibilityStimuli did not sound like real wordsDifference between coronal and labial coda optionsSummaryFeature-parsing account predict the resultsTentative interpretation
(Aleksandra)
Part Five: Ch 23.3~6 How do Listeners Compensate for Phonology?
Part Five: Ch 23.3~6 How do Listeners Compensate for Phonology?
23.3 Experiment 2
23.3.1 Methods
Use monomorphemic non-words in (C)VCCV(V)
A linguistically naïve female native Korean speaker recorded the stimuli
310 different items occurred twice
Ten Korean native speakers as listeners
23.3.2. Results
Listeners show high rates of correct response(96.8%) to the fillers.
23.3.3 Discussion
Goal
Whether listeners can infer the underlying forms
From phonetic homorganic clusters in non-words
Interesting result
Velar stimuli
Both /s.k/ and /p.k/ assimilate to [k.k] in natural speech
Main factors of lowering YES response
Frequency of labial-to-velar assimilation
Coronal-to-noncornoal assimilation
23.4 Experiment 3
23.4.1 Methods
Stimuli is pseudo-compounds consisting of two words
Listeners were provided transcription options
Ten Korean native speakers
23.4.2. Results
Rate of YES is 96.3%
Subject understood the task
23.4.3 Discussion
Purpose
Test the expectation
If listeners identified the initial morpheme in a new compound
Response
Higher than the previous ones
23.5 General Discussion
Subject are
preferred homorganic clusters as underlying forms
preferred coronal as targets of assimilation
Response pattern in Experiment 2 &3
Support the phonological-inference account
Listeners did not recover legal heterorganic clusters as underlying form
Result of Experiment 3
Show listeners reply more on phonological inference.
23.6 Conclusion
Goal
To test whether listeners use their phonological knowledge to infer original forms in speech recognition
Result suggest
Phonological inference is a part of the speech recognition process
(惠珍)
2008年6月24日 星期二
CH 15
15.1
1. F0 plays an important role in conveying linguistic, paralinguistic, and non-linguistic information
2. Deriving a fullu quantitative represnetation of continuous F0 contours of speech is difficult
(1) Numbers of parameters
(2) Relationship between local accent/tone and global phrase intonation
(3) Mathematical representation
3.
(1)Model/rule-based approaches
(2)Data-driven approaches
(a)Explicit representation of only local components
(b) Both global and local components
4. Examples of those approaches
(1) early work by Pierre Humbert(1980)
(2) Intonation module for Mandarin in the Bell Labs TTS systems
(3) PENTA
(4) IPO model
(5) Soft Template Mark-UP Languages
(6) CART
(7) HMM
(8) Quantitative Models
1. F0 plays an important role in conveying linguistic, paralinguistic, and non-linguistic information
2. Deriving a fullu quantitative represnetation of continuous F0 contours of speech is difficult
(1) Numbers of parameters
(2) Relationship between local accent/tone and global phrase intonation
(3) Mathematical representation
3.
(1)Model/rule-based approaches
(2)Data-driven approaches
(a)Explicit representation of only local components
(b) Both global and local components
4. Examples of those approaches
(1) early work by Pierre Humbert(1980)
(2) Intonation module for Mandarin in the Bell Labs TTS systems
(3) PENTA
(4) IPO model
(5) Soft Template Mark-UP Languages
(6) CART
(7) HMM
(8) Quantitative Models
8.2
8.2.1
1. The real numbers of V & C
UPSID Database: 920 phonemes/systems with five vowels and 22 consonants
2. Trubetzkoy(1931)
3. Valle'e(1994)
4. Meillet and Cohen(1924) & Greeberg(1963)
5. Geographical tendencies rather than genetic ones
8.2.2 Vowels
1. UPSIP: 38 plain vowel qualities & secondary features
2. Strong preference for 5vowels
3. /i a u/, /i e a o u/,
4. schwa
(1)transparency rules
(2) parallel vowels & intrinsic principles
5. /i/ /a/ /u/ are systematically used except for
(1) dialectal Arabic Vs
(2) Australian Indigenous
(3) Anatolian Indo-European languages
6. Predictions should be based on
(1)Perceptual differentiation
(2) Perceptual representation spaces based on a hierarchy of features
1. The real numbers of V & C
UPSID Database: 920 phonemes/systems with five vowels and 22 consonants
2. Trubetzkoy(1931)
3. Valle'e(1994)
4. Meillet and Cohen(1924) & Greeberg(1963)
5. Geographical tendencies rather than genetic ones
8.2.2 Vowels
1. UPSIP: 38 plain vowel qualities & secondary features
2. Strong preference for 5vowels
3. /i a u/, /i e a o u/,
4. schwa
(1)transparency rules
(2) parallel vowels & intrinsic principles
5. /i/ /a/ /u/ are systematically used except for
(1) dialectal Arabic Vs
(2) Australian Indigenous
(3) Anatolian Indo-European languages
6. Predictions should be based on
(1)Perceptual differentiation
(2) Perceptual representation spaces based on a hierarchy of features
2008年6月12日 星期四
選擇性不語症 多半為焦慮引發
選擇性不語症 多半為焦慮引發
更新日期:2008/05/27 04:09
選擇性不語症屬於廣義精神症狀的一種，大人小孩都可能罹患，多半是對情境陌生感或焦慮引發，或受到某些重大刺激導致，小孩罹患機率居多。
選擇性不語症兒童會隨年紀增長與智力發展，不說話情形會逐漸改善，但屆時幾乎已過了最重要的學習階段，語文發音及人際關係困擾很難彌補，一般建議儘早尋求專業精神科醫師、心理師或諮商師介入輔導。
選擇性不語症的孩子不講話對象可能是老師、同學，也可能是自己親人。
精神科醫師蔣榮欽表示，不講話不一定是罹患選擇性不語症（也可能是自閉傾向），需經專業鑑定才能判別，輔導選擇性不語症孩童需以心理治療為主，設法建立孩子自信、並取得孩子信任。
醫界也嘗試研究藥物治療可能，但著重在降低小孩焦慮程度、減輕其畏懼心情，讓他們有比較自在的感覺。
（記者王榮祥）
http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/080527/78/100j3.html
更新日期:2008/05/27 04:09
選擇性不語症屬於廣義精神症狀的一種，大人小孩都可能罹患，多半是對情境陌生感或焦慮引發，或受到某些重大刺激導致，小孩罹患機率居多。
選擇性不語症兒童會隨年紀增長與智力發展，不說話情形會逐漸改善，但屆時幾乎已過了最重要的學習階段，語文發音及人際關係困擾很難彌補，一般建議儘早尋求專業精神科醫師、心理師或諮商師介入輔導。
選擇性不語症的孩子不講話對象可能是老師、同學，也可能是自己親人。
精神科醫師蔣榮欽表示，不講話不一定是罹患選擇性不語症（也可能是自閉傾向），需經專業鑑定才能判別，輔導選擇性不語症孩童需以心理治療為主，設法建立孩子自信、並取得孩子信任。
醫界也嘗試研究藥物治療可能，但著重在降低小孩焦慮程度、減輕其畏懼心情，讓他們有比較自在的感覺。
（記者王榮祥）
http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/080527/78/100j3.html
淺談兒童語言治療
淺談兒童語言治療
更新日期:2007/09/26 12:50 周琪霏／整理報導
一般兒童發音不標準的情形，稱為『構音/音韻異常』，造成異常的原因：
1.) 機能性構音/音韻異常：指器官上的構造及運用，都找不出任何缺陷，但是，就是發音不標準。
2.) 構音器官結構上的問題，如：舌繫帶、唇顎裂、嚴重咬和不正。
3.) 構音器官神經肌肉控制的問題，如腦性麻痺、口腔動作協調差。
4.) 感覺異常，如：聽力障礙、口腔靈敏度差。
5.) 智能問題，如：發展遲緩、智能障礙。
天主教聖功醫院復健科 王鳳妃語言治療師建議在幼兒3-4歲以前，構音器官的發展尚未完全成熟，語言純熟度不夠，常會出現發音不標準的情形，但隨著年齡的增長，語言發展愈來愈成熟，構音/音韻異常的情形就會自行改善，因此，孩子到了四歲後仍然有發音不標準的情形，則需要接受語言治療師的評估與治療。
所謂『舌根』，學理上稱為『舌繫帶』，而幼兒舌繫帶是否太緊，只要觀察幼兒伸舌頭時，舌頭中線是否呈現凹陷，也就是舌頭伸出來的時候是否呈現M型，這樣就是舌繫帶太緊，或是引導幼兒做舌頭運動，看舌尖是否能碰觸上下唇，也順便觀察舌頭的活動情形。一般而言，舌繫帶通常不是造成幼兒構音/音韻異常的主要因素，可以請復健科醫師、耳鼻喉科醫師或語言治療師評估確認，以免讓孩子白挨一刀。
構音/音韻異常的幼兒，接受語言治療最適當的時機，為年齡4-6歲，最好在孩子上小學一年級前完全矯正，才不會造成孩子的自卑心理或影響其人際互動。單純的機能性構音/音韻異常，只要家長與幼兒能配合，在專業的語言治療師指導下，成效通常不錯，大部分的幼兒在接受語言治療後，半年至一年內口齒清晰度會有明顯的改善，甚至可以完全發出正確的語音，若家長對孩子的發音仍然有疑問或不放心，建議找語言治療師評估是最好的方法。
資料來源：http://www.uho.com.tw/hotnews.asp?aid=3629
http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/070926/61/l6iy.html
更新日期:2007/09/26 12:50 周琪霏／整理報導
一般兒童發音不標準的情形，稱為『構音/音韻異常』，造成異常的原因：
1.) 機能性構音/音韻異常：指器官上的構造及運用，都找不出任何缺陷，但是，就是發音不標準。
2.) 構音器官結構上的問題，如：舌繫帶、唇顎裂、嚴重咬和不正。
3.) 構音器官神經肌肉控制的問題，如腦性麻痺、口腔動作協調差。
4.) 感覺異常，如：聽力障礙、口腔靈敏度差。
5.) 智能問題，如：發展遲緩、智能障礙。
天主教聖功醫院復健科 王鳳妃語言治療師建議在幼兒3-4歲以前，構音器官的發展尚未完全成熟，語言純熟度不夠，常會出現發音不標準的情形，但隨著年齡的增長，語言發展愈來愈成熟，構音/音韻異常的情形就會自行改善，因此，孩子到了四歲後仍然有發音不標準的情形，則需要接受語言治療師的評估與治療。
所謂『舌根』，學理上稱為『舌繫帶』，而幼兒舌繫帶是否太緊，只要觀察幼兒伸舌頭時，舌頭中線是否呈現凹陷，也就是舌頭伸出來的時候是否呈現M型，這樣就是舌繫帶太緊，或是引導幼兒做舌頭運動，看舌尖是否能碰觸上下唇，也順便觀察舌頭的活動情形。一般而言，舌繫帶通常不是造成幼兒構音/音韻異常的主要因素，可以請復健科醫師、耳鼻喉科醫師或語言治療師評估確認，以免讓孩子白挨一刀。
構音/音韻異常的幼兒，接受語言治療最適當的時機，為年齡4-6歲，最好在孩子上小學一年級前完全矯正，才不會造成孩子的自卑心理或影響其人際互動。單純的機能性構音/音韻異常，只要家長與幼兒能配合，在專業的語言治療師指導下，成效通常不錯，大部分的幼兒在接受語言治療後，半年至一年內口齒清晰度會有明顯的改善，甚至可以完全發出正確的語音，若家長對孩子的發音仍然有疑問或不放心，建議找語言治療師評估是最好的方法。
資料來源：http://www.uho.com.tw/hotnews.asp?aid=3629
http://tw.news.yahoo.com/article/url/d/a/070926/61/l6iy.html
Ch. 15
Physiological and Physical Base of the Command-Response Model for Genereating Fundamental Frequency Contours in Tone Languages
15.1
Fundamental frequency(F0): linguistic, paralinguistic, and non-linguistics information
Difficulties in deriving representation of continuous F0 contours
Parallel Encoding and Target Approximation Model(Xu)
Hierarchical approcach---IPO model ('t Hart and Cohen)
Hierarchical approach---soft Template Mark-up Language(Kochanski and Shih)
Data-driven approaches
Physiological and physical mechanisms for F0 controls
Physiological and physical properties of vocal folds and laryngeal structure
Positive and negative local components to express tones
15.1
Fundamental frequency(F0): linguistic, paralinguistic, and non-linguistics information
Difficulties in deriving representation of continuous F0 contours
Parallel Encoding and Target Approximation Model(Xu)
Hierarchical approcach---IPO model ('t Hart and Cohen)
Hierarchical approach---soft Template Mark-up Language(Kochanski and Shih)
Data-driven approaches
Physiological and physical mechanisms for F0 controls
Physiological and physical properties of vocal folds and laryngeal structure
Positive and negative local components to express tones
Ch.12 A Perceptual Bridge Between Coronal an Dorsal /r/
12.1
Why would [r]change into [R] (or vice versa)
How does sound change begin?
Perception affects place of articulation
Purpose---examine the perceptual preconditions for reinterpretation of place of articulation.
Establish an articulatory-acoustic reference system
Evaluate the articulatory -aoustic relationships
Synthesize an /r/ continuum
Why would [r]change into [R] (or vice versa)
How does sound change begin?
Perception affects place of articulation
Purpose---examine the perceptual preconditions for reinterpretation of place of articulation.
Establish an articulatory-acoustic reference system
Evaluate the articulatory -aoustic relationships
Synthesize an /r/ continuum
Experimental Phonology---Ch. 8
Linking Dispersion-Focalization Theory and the Maximum Utilization of the Available Distinctive Features Principle in a Perception-for-Action-Control Theory
8.1 introduction
Liljencrants and Lindblom---Dispersion Theory
Steven---Quantal Theory
How the emergence of such ofrmal systems could be shaped?
Links between subtance and form
John Ohala---Maximum Utilization of the Available Features
Contents of this chapter
Facts about Vs and Cs
Focalization Theory
Action Control Theory
8.2
Systems
UPSID Database
Trubetzkoy
Greenberg
Certain features are associated with certain geographical areas
Languages exhibit geographical tendencies rather than genetic ones
Facts about Vowels and Consonants
8.1 introduction
Liljencrants and Lindblom---Dispersion Theory
Steven---Quantal Theory
How the emergence of such ofrmal systems could be shaped?
Links between subtance and form
John Ohala---Maximum Utilization of the Available Features
Contents of this chapter
Facts about Vs and Cs
Focalization Theory
Action Control Theory
8.2
Systems
UPSID Database
Trubetzkoy
Greenberg
Certain features are associated with certain geographical areas
Languages exhibit geographical tendencies rather than genetic ones
Facts about Vowels and Consonants
台灣鹿港方言的一些語音特點
台灣鹿港方言的一些語音特點
樋口 靖
1. 台灣閩南語包含泉州、漳州兩系統
2. 以泉州腔為主
3. 台澎方言為泉州腔與漳州腔之混合，接近廈門音系。
4. 鹿港化保留完整泉州腔。
5. 鹿港方言之語音系統
6. 鹿港方言與泉州方言之比較
7. 台南(漳州腔)、鹿港(泉州腔)、台北(廈門音)之比較
樋口 靖
1. 台灣閩南語包含泉州、漳州兩系統
2. 以泉州腔為主
3. 台澎方言為泉州腔與漳州腔之混合，接近廈門音系。
4. 鹿港化保留完整泉州腔。
5. 鹿港方言之語音系統
6. 鹿港方言與泉州方言之比較
7. 台南(漳州腔)、鹿港(泉州腔)、台北(廈門音)之比較
reference: <現代台灣話研究論文集>文鶴出版有限公司
Phonetically Based
更改位置1
http://www.ling.fju.edu.tw/phono/distributions.html
(加入新學派: Phonetically Based Phonology (2004))
更改位置2
建立Phonetically Based Phonology (2004)連結至以下內容:
--------------------------------------------------
Theory
The central difference between PBP and classical OT is the source of the constraint set. Whereas Prince & Smolensky (1993) assumed that all constraints are universal and innate, PBP subscribes to neither of those assumptions. In contrast, it is assumed that the constraints are derived by speakers or learners on the basis of the available evidence, and of implicit phonetic knowledge, “the speakers’ partial understanding of the physical conditions under which speech is produced and perceived” (Hayes and Steriade, p. 1). This knowledge is potentially universal — every human being can have access to it. But it is not (necessarily) completely innate. Although none of the articles is very explicit on this, and the term acquisition is regrettably absent from the index, it is assumed that “Universal Grammar (UG) [is] primarily [. . . ] a set of abstract analytical predispositions that allow learners to induce grammars from the raw facts of speech” (cf. Hayes, 1999)….
Reference: http://www.vanoostendorp.nl/pdf/phoneticallydriven.pdf
Scholars
Bruce P. Hayes
Robert Kirchner
Donca Steriade
Reference
http://www.vanoostendorp.nl/pdf/phoneticallydriven.pdf
http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/PBP/index.htm
http://www-lfg.stanford.edu/bresnan/fot-final.pdf.
http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/linguist/issues/16/16-1400.html
http://www.ling.fju.edu.tw/phono/distributions.html
(加入新學派: Phonetically Based Phonology (2004))
更改位置2
建立Phonetically Based Phonology (2004)連結至以下內容:
--------------------------------------------------
Theory
The central difference between PBP and classical OT is the source of the constraint set. Whereas Prince & Smolensky (1993) assumed that all constraints are universal and innate, PBP subscribes to neither of those assumptions. In contrast, it is assumed that the constraints are derived by speakers or learners on the basis of the available evidence, and of implicit phonetic knowledge, “the speakers’ partial understanding of the physical conditions under which speech is produced and perceived” (Hayes and Steriade, p. 1). This knowledge is potentially universal — every human being can have access to it. But it is not (necessarily) completely innate. Although none of the articles is very explicit on this, and the term acquisition is regrettably absent from the index, it is assumed that “Universal Grammar (UG) [is] primarily [. . . ] a set of abstract analytical predispositions that allow learners to induce grammars from the raw facts of speech” (cf. Hayes, 1999)….
Reference: http://www.vanoostendorp.nl/pdf/phoneticallydriven.pdf
Scholars
Bruce P. Hayes
Robert Kirchner
Donca Steriade
Reference
http://www.vanoostendorp.nl/pdf/phoneticallydriven.pdf
http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/PBP/index.htm
http://www-lfg.stanford.edu/bresnan/fot-final.pdf.
http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/linguist/issues/16/16-1400.html
Discourse Phonology
更改位置:
http://www.ling.fju.edu.tw/phono/discourse.htm
(從此頁標題links底下改成以下內容 )
------------------------------------------------------------
· Links
1. Dr. Richard Cauldwell-His research interests center on the prosodic and syntactic description of spontaneous speech, and exploiting the features of spontaneous speech for teaching pronunciation and listening.
http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/rcauldwell/
2. 學習障礙資訊站-about learning disability
http://www.dale.nhctc.edu.tw/ald/no17-7.htm
3. Centre for Language and Communication in the Cardiff University
http://www.cf.ac.uk/encap/sections/lac/postgrad/modules.html 4. Computational Phonology:A Constraint-Based Approach
5. Studies in Constraint-based Phonology
6. An aspect of dialectal variations in Korean phonology: a constraint-based analysis (PDF)
· References
Bolinger, D.1986. Intonation and Its Uses: Melody in Spoken English. Stanford, CA: Sanford Uni. Press.
Crystal, D. 1969. Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni. Press.
Elizabeth Mills. 1984. Senoufo Phonology, Discourse to Syllable. Summer Inst of Linguistics Publisher.
Gibbon, D. & Richter, H., Eds. 1984. Intonation, Accent and Rhythm: Studies in Discourse Phonology. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Pike, K.L. 1965. The Intonation of American English. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Ruth Margaret Brend. 1985. From Phonology to Discourse. Summer Inst of Linguistics Publisher.
Tench, P. 1988. The Roles on Intonation in English Discourse. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Waugh, L.R. & Van Schooneveld, C.H., Eds. The Melody of Language. Baltimore: University Park Press.
http://www.ling.fju.edu.tw/phono/discourse.htm
(從此頁標題links底下改成以下內容 )
------------------------------------------------------------
· Links
1. Dr. Richard Cauldwell-His research interests center on the prosodic and syntactic description of spontaneous speech, and exploiting the features of spontaneous speech for teaching pronunciation and listening.
http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/rcauldwell/
2. 學習障礙資訊站-about learning disability
http://www.dale.nhctc.edu.tw/ald/no17-7.htm
3. Centre for Language and Communication in the Cardiff University
http://www.cf.ac.uk/encap/sections/lac/postgrad/modules.html 4. Computational Phonology:A Constraint-Based Approach
5. Studies in Constraint-based Phonology
6. An aspect of dialectal variations in Korean phonology: a constraint-based analysis (PDF)
· References
Bolinger, D.1986. Intonation and Its Uses: Melody in Spoken English. Stanford, CA: Sanford Uni. Press.
Crystal, D. 1969. Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni. Press.
Elizabeth Mills. 1984. Senoufo Phonology, Discourse to Syllable. Summer Inst of Linguistics Publisher.
Gibbon, D. & Richter, H., Eds. 1984. Intonation, Accent and Rhythm: Studies in Discourse Phonology. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Pike, K.L. 1965. The Intonation of American English. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Ruth Margaret Brend. 1985. From Phonology to Discourse. Summer Inst of Linguistics Publisher.
Tench, P. 1988. The Roles on Intonation in English Discourse. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Waugh, L.R. & Van Schooneveld, C.H., Eds. The Melody of Language. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Constraint Based Phonology
更改位置:
http://www.ling.fju.edu.tw/phono/constraint.htm
(整頁改寫)
---------------------------------------------------
Constraint Based Phonology
1. Representative-- Steven Bird’s Homepage
http://www.cs.mu.oz.au/~sb/
2. Theory--
Unlike the traditional model of grammatical organization, here the different linguistic modules operate in parallel to provide a pool of constraints which independently ensure the phonological, syntactic and semantic well formedness of an utterance. In the traditional view, there is just the one hierarchy, with phonological units such as distinctive features at the bottom, morphemes and words in the middle reaches, and phrases and sentences towards the top. The associated processing model is serial: recognition involves a phonological component, which passes its output to the morphological or syntactic component, and so on.
We wonder how the conception of constraint is used in phonology? First, a constraint is an empirical generalization about a collection of objects. Second, constraints interact to mutually restrict a solution space. Finally, the order of application of constraints is immaterial to the end result.
Constraints are familiar to phonologists in the form of morpheme structure constraints and surface structure constraints. The latter are essentially statements about the distribution of phonological primes. A constraint-based phonological analysis is to be evaluated along the same dimensions of empirical and explanatory adequacy as standard generative analyses. In philosophy, artificial intelligence and cognitive science, it has often been found useful to distinguish between intension and extension (or description and object). The distinction between descriptions and objects introduces a degree of flexibility into linguistic notation that is unavailable without this distinction. For example, it is possible for different descriptions to denote the same object (e.g. ‘morning star’/ ‘evening star’), while some descriptions are satisfied by no objects (e.g. ‘unicorn’). Also, it is possible for the description ‘morning star’ to be interpreted in various ways； it might denote the planet Venus, a brand of dishwashing detergent, or – most relevant here – a particular speech event. If we incorporate the distinction into phonology, we get a fundamentally different view of the relationship between phonology and phonetics from the traditional view. Phonological representations are descriptions of real-world utterances (the objects).
A further consequence of adopting the description/object distinction is that there can be no rule ordering. Rules are just descriptions. Although a rule might be stated in the form of a rewrite rule a → b, this rule is interpreted as a logical implication, equivalent to the expression ﹁ a Ú b. this contrasts with the standard interpretation of these rules, evident from rules like [+voice] →[-voice], where the objects satisfying the description on the left side of the arrow are modified (minimally) so that they now satisfy the description on the right side of the arrow instead.
A phonological rule such as homorganic nasal assimilation describes the set of all forms which are compatible with the rule.. Thus, rules act as constraints.
Morpheme structure constraints, which state regularities about certain classes of morpheme, fit naturally into this model. For example, the vowel harmony in Yoruba is restricted to nouns, and so the required constraint on vowel sequences might be formulated as a property of the noun type in the lexicon.
The advent of generative phonology , with its highly procedural model of phonology, drew attention away from constraints. Properties of surface forms were not to be expressed directly but arose out of the combined action of lexical specifications, morpheme structure rules and derivations. No rule could be said to act like a constraint, since the effect of the rule could always be undone by later rules. Although this view has survived to the present intact, it has also been challenged right from the start.
Complaints about the abstractness of generative analyses led to new models which retained the earlier notions about constraints. For example, Shibatani (1973) advocated ‘surface phonetic constraints’, which ‘state possible and impossible combinations of phonetic features at the phonetic level, i.e. represent true generalizations about the phonetic pattern of a language’. To illustrate Shibatani’s approach, we shall consider his analysis of Turkish vowel harmony. Shibatani views vowel harmony as ‘cooccurrence restrictions on vowel features in successive syllables’. Alternating vowels are expressed as archiphonemes (i.e. sets of vowels )in the lexicon, and the selection of the appropriate vowel is done automatically by the surface phonetic constraint for harmony.
The Turkish word kizlar ‘girls’ is represented morphophonemically as /kiz + lEr/ , where /E/ = {/e/ , /a/ }. The stem vowel is fully specified because it does not alternate, while the suffix vowel is not fully specified. The surface value of the suffix vowel is determined by the above mentioned rule which instantiates /E/ as /a/. If no other constraints reject the phonetic form [kizlar] then this is the allowed form.
3. Related Websites:
Steven Bird’s publication
http://morph.ldc.upenn.edu/sb/home/publications.html
HCRC Project: Computational Phonology: A Constraint-Based Approach
http://www.hcrc.ed.ac.uk/Site/COMPPHON.html
Abstract - Prosodic Morphology and Constraint-based Phonology
http://www.iccs.informatics.ed.ac.uk/publications/RP/1990/EUCCS-RP-1990-1.html
Abstract - Association as Dominance in a Constraint-Based Phonology
http://www.iccs.informatics.ed.ac.uk/publications/RP/1990/EUCCS-RP-1990-6.html
Constraint-based phonology
http://www.ling.yale.edu/ling165/Intro_Phonology/OT.html
Computational Phonology:A Constraint-Based Approach
Studies in Constraint-based Phonology
An aspect of dialectal variations in Korean phonology: a constraint-based analysis(PDF)
SFB-Project on Lexical Phonology and Constraint-based Phonology
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/sfb282/C10/index.htm
http://www.ling.fju.edu.tw/phono/constraint.htm
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Constraint Based Phonology
1. Representative-- Steven Bird’s Homepage
http://www.cs.mu.oz.au/~sb/
2. Theory--
Unlike the traditional model of grammatical organization, here the different linguistic modules operate in parallel to provide a pool of constraints which independently ensure the phonological, syntactic and semantic well formedness of an utterance. In the traditional view, there is just the one hierarchy, with phonological units such as distinctive features at the bottom, morphemes and words in the middle reaches, and phrases and sentences towards the top. The associated processing model is serial: recognition involves a phonological component, which passes its output to the morphological or syntactic component, and so on.
We wonder how the conception of constraint is used in phonology? First, a constraint is an empirical generalization about a collection of objects. Second, constraints interact to mutually restrict a solution space. Finally, the order of application of constraints is immaterial to the end result.
Constraints are familiar to phonologists in the form of morpheme structure constraints and surface structure constraints. The latter are essentially statements about the distribution of phonological primes. A constraint-based phonological analysis is to be evaluated along the same dimensions of empirical and explanatory adequacy as standard generative analyses. In philosophy, artificial intelligence and cognitive science, it has often been found useful to distinguish between intension and extension (or description and object). The distinction between descriptions and objects introduces a degree of flexibility into linguistic notation that is unavailable without this distinction. For example, it is possible for different descriptions to denote the same object (e.g. ‘morning star’/ ‘evening star’), while some descriptions are satisfied by no objects (e.g. ‘unicorn’). Also, it is possible for the description ‘morning star’ to be interpreted in various ways； it might denote the planet Venus, a brand of dishwashing detergent, or – most relevant here – a particular speech event. If we incorporate the distinction into phonology, we get a fundamentally different view of the relationship between phonology and phonetics from the traditional view. Phonological representations are descriptions of real-world utterances (the objects).
A further consequence of adopting the description/object distinction is that there can be no rule ordering. Rules are just descriptions. Although a rule might be stated in the form of a rewrite rule a → b, this rule is interpreted as a logical implication, equivalent to the expression ﹁ a Ú b. this contrasts with the standard interpretation of these rules, evident from rules like [+voice] →[-voice], where the objects satisfying the description on the left side of the arrow are modified (minimally) so that they now satisfy the description on the right side of the arrow instead.
A phonological rule such as homorganic nasal assimilation describes the set of all forms which are compatible with the rule.. Thus, rules act as constraints.
Morpheme structure constraints, which state regularities about certain classes of morpheme, fit naturally into this model. For example, the vowel harmony in Yoruba is restricted to nouns, and so the required constraint on vowel sequences might be formulated as a property of the noun type in the lexicon.
The advent of generative phonology , with its highly procedural model of phonology, drew attention away from constraints. Properties of surface forms were not to be expressed directly but arose out of the combined action of lexical specifications, morpheme structure rules and derivations. No rule could be said to act like a constraint, since the effect of the rule could always be undone by later rules. Although this view has survived to the present intact, it has also been challenged right from the start.
Complaints about the abstractness of generative analyses led to new models which retained the earlier notions about constraints. For example, Shibatani (1973) advocated ‘surface phonetic constraints’, which ‘state possible and impossible combinations of phonetic features at the phonetic level, i.e. represent true generalizations about the phonetic pattern of a language’. To illustrate Shibatani’s approach, we shall consider his analysis of Turkish vowel harmony. Shibatani views vowel harmony as ‘cooccurrence restrictions on vowel features in successive syllables’. Alternating vowels are expressed as archiphonemes (i.e. sets of vowels )in the lexicon, and the selection of the appropriate vowel is done automatically by the surface phonetic constraint for harmony.
The Turkish word kizlar ‘girls’ is represented morphophonemically as /kiz + lEr/ , where /E/ = {/e/ , /a/ }. The stem vowel is fully specified because it does not alternate, while the suffix vowel is not fully specified. The surface value of the suffix vowel is determined by the above mentioned rule which instantiates /E/ as /a/. If no other constraints reject the phonetic form [kizlar] then this is the allowed form.
3. Related Websites:
Steven Bird’s publication
http://morph.ldc.upenn.edu/sb/home/publications.html
HCRC Project: Computational Phonology: A Constraint-Based Approach
http://www.hcrc.ed.ac.uk/Site/COMPPHON.html
Abstract - Prosodic Morphology and Constraint-based Phonology
http://www.iccs.informatics.ed.ac.uk/publications/RP/1990/EUCCS-RP-1990-1.html
Abstract - Association as Dominance in a Constraint-Based Phonology
http://www.iccs.informatics.ed.ac.uk/publications/RP/1990/EUCCS-RP-1990-6.html
Constraint-based phonology
http://www.ling.yale.edu/ling165/Intro_Phonology/OT.html
Computational Phonology:A Constraint-Based Approach
Studies in Constraint-based Phonology
An aspect of dialectal variations in Korean phonology: a constraint-based analysis(PDF)
SFB-Project on Lexical Phonology and Constraint-based Phonology
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/sfb282/C10/index.htm
American Structuralist Phonology
更改位置: http://www.ling.fju.edu.tw/phono/eva/AMERICAN20STRUCTURALIST/website.htm
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1. Edward Sapir
http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/information/biography/pqrst/sapir_edward.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/anthropology/about/main/one/sapir.html
http://www.bartleby.com/people/Sapir-Ed.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-sapir
http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12629
2. Franz Boas
http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/information/biography/abcde/boas_franz.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Boas
http://astro.temple.edu/~ruby/ruby/boas.html
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/boas.htm
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/anthropology/about/main/one/boas.html
http://www.nndb.com/people/861/000097570/
3. Leonard Bloomfield
http://cognet.mit.edu/MITECS/Entry/langendoen
http://www.xrefer.com/entry/441234
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015721/Leonard-Bloomfield
http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!87125!0&term=#focus
4. Levels in American Structuralist phonology
http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/~jcoleman/rules.htm
5. Characterizations of American Structuralism
http://www.fleric.org/forum/archiver/?tid-368.html
(整頁改寫)
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1. Edward Sapir
http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/information/biography/pqrst/sapir_edward.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/anthropology/about/main/one/sapir.html
http://www.bartleby.com/people/Sapir-Ed.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/edward-sapir
http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12629
2. Franz Boas
http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/information/biography/abcde/boas_franz.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Boas
http://astro.temple.edu/~ruby/ruby/boas.html
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/b/boas.htm
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/anthropology/about/main/one/boas.html
http://www.nndb.com/people/861/000097570/
3. Leonard Bloomfield
http://cognet.mit.edu/MITECS/Entry/langendoen
http://www.xrefer.com/entry/441234
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015721/Leonard-Bloomfield
http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!87125!0&term=#focus
4. Levels in American Structuralist phonology
http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/~jcoleman/rules.htm
5. Characterizations of American Structuralism
http://www.fleric.org/forum/archiver/?tid-368.html
2008年6月5日 星期四
Useful Links of Phonology
Questia-The Online Library of Books and Journals
The World's Largest Online Library of BooksQuestia is the first online library that provides 24/7 access to the world's largest online collection of books and journal articles in the humanities and social sciences, plus magazine and newspaper articles. You can search each and every word of all of the books and journal articles in the collection. You can read every title cover to cover. This rich, scholarly content -- selected by professional collection development librarians -- is not available elsewhere on the Internet. Undergraduate, high school, graduate students, and Internet users of all ages have found Questia to be an invaluable online resource. Anyone doing research or just interested in topics that touch on the humanities and social sciences will find titles of interest in Questia.
To complement the library, Questia offers a range of search, note-taking, and writing tools. These tools help students locate the most relevant information on their topics quickly, quote and cite correctly, and create properly formatted footnotes and bibliographies automatically. Questia provides a comprehensive research environment to meet students' academic needs.
The World's Largest Online Library of BooksQuestia is the first online library that provides 24/7 access to the world's largest online collection of books and journal articles in the humanities and social sciences, plus magazine and newspaper articles. You can search each and every word of all of the books and journal articles in the collection. You can read every title cover to cover. This rich, scholarly content -- selected by professional collection development librarians -- is not available elsewhere on the Internet. Undergraduate, high school, graduate students, and Internet users of all ages have found Questia to be an invaluable online resource. Anyone doing research or just interested in topics that touch on the humanities and social sciences will find titles of interest in Questia.
To complement the library, Questia offers a range of search, note-taking, and writing tools. These tools help students locate the most relevant information on their topics quickly, quote and cite correctly, and create properly formatted footnotes and bibliographies automatically. Questia provides a comprehensive research environment to meet students' academic needs.
Constraint Based Phonology
Unlike the traditional model of grammatical organization, here the different linguistic modules operate in parallel to provide a pool of constraints which independently ensure the phonological, syntactic and semantic well formedness of an utterance. In the traditional view, there is just the one hierarchy, with phonological units such as distinctive features at the bottom, morphemes and words in the middle reaches, and phrases and sentences towards the top. The associated processing model is serial: recognition involves a phonological component, which passes its output to the morphological or syntactic component, and so on.
We wonder how the conception of constraint is used in phonology? First, a constraint is an empirical generalization about a collection of objects. Second, constraints interact to mutually restrict a solution space. Finally, the order of application of constraints is immaterial to the end result.
Computational Phonology:A Constraint-Based Approach
Studies in Constraint-based Phonology
An aspect of dialectal variations in Korean phonology: a constraint-based analysis (PDF)
We wonder how the conception of constraint is used in phonology? First, a constraint is an empirical generalization about a collection of objects. Second, constraints interact to mutually restrict a solution space. Finally, the order of application of constraints is immaterial to the end result.
Computational Phonology:A Constraint-Based Approach
Studies in Constraint-based Phonology
An aspect of dialectal variations in Korean phonology: a constraint-based analysis (PDF)
Étienne-Jules Marey
1. Étienne-Jules Marey (March 5, 1830 – May 21, 1904)
2. French scientist and chronophotographer, born in Beaune, France.
cardiology, physical instrumentation, aviation, cinematography and the science of labor photography.
3. Instruments for precise measurements
4. Sphygmographe to measure the pulse
5. chronophotography in the 1880s
6. Le Vol des Oiseaux (“The Flight of Birds”)
7. Marey's chronophotographic gun(in 1882)
8. Cats landing
9. Human locomotion
10. Falling ball
11. Smoke trails
-smoke machine with 58 smoke trails
-first aerodynamic wind tunnels
2. French scientist and chronophotographer, born in Beaune, France.
cardiology, physical instrumentation, aviation, cinematography and the science of labor photography.
3. Instruments for precise measurements
4. Sphygmographe to measure the pulse
5. chronophotography in the 1880s
6. Le Vol des Oiseaux (“The Flight of Birds”)
7. Marey's chronophotographic gun(in 1882)
8. Cats landing
9. Human locomotion
10. Falling ball
11. Smoke trails
-smoke machine with 58 smoke trails
-first aerodynamic wind tunnels
2008年5月29日 星期四
Silent Speech Translation by interACT
http://tw.youtube.com/watch?v=aMPNjMVlr8A
This prototype demonstrates the electromyographic (EMG) silent speech recognition research in InterACT. The EMG research focuses on making use of the EMG signal generated by the articulatory muscles to recognize silent speech.Th e demo person will speak in silent Mandarin speech and the system translates it to English or Spanish.
Electromyography
This prototype demonstrates the electromyographic (EMG) silent speech recognition research in InterACT. The EMG research focuses on making use of the EMG signal generated by the articulatory muscles to recognize silent speech.Th e demo person will speak in silent Mandarin speech and the system translates it to English or Spanish.
Electromyography
Area Functions and Articulatory Modeling
Chp.5
5.2 Background
5.2.1 The F-pattern
1. F-pattern: The filter function of the VT contains only resonance, labeled F1, F2, F3, F4, and F5.
2. Main gestures of those formants
3. Spectrograms of oral vowels and consonants
4. Spectrograms of stops, voiceless fricatives, voiced fricatives
5.2.2Maeda’s Articulatory Model
1. Guided Principal Component Analysis of Midsagittal X-ray tracings
2. Tongue dorsum position, tongue shape, tongue apex position, lip aperture, lipper, and larynx height
3. The three different types of input used in the model: seven articulatory parameters, X-ray or Magnetic Resonance Imaging data, area fuction table
5.2 Background
5.2.1 The F-pattern
1. F-pattern: The filter function of the VT contains only resonance, labeled F1, F2, F3, F4, and F5.
2. Main gestures of those formants
3. Spectrograms of oral vowels and consonants
4. Spectrograms of stops, voiceless fricatives, voiced fricatives
5.2.2Maeda’s Articulatory Model
1. Guided Principal Component Analysis of Midsagittal X-ray tracings
2. Tongue dorsum position, tongue shape, tongue apex position, lip aperture, lipper, and larynx height
3. The three different types of input used in the model: seven articulatory parameters, X-ray or Magnetic Resonance Imaging data, area fuction table
2008年5月15日 星期四
Questions and Sub-questions in Phonology
How phonology involve into its current state?
How did language and speech arise or evolve in our species? Why is the vocal apparatus different as a function of the age and sex of the speaker? What is the relation, if any, between human speech and non-human communication?
What are phonological universals?
How is language and its parts, including words and morphemes, represented in the mind of the speaker; how is this representation accessed and used? How can we account for the variation in the phonetic shape of these elements as a function of context and speaking style?
How, physically and physiologically, does speech work---the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?
Why and how does pronunciation change over time, thus giving rise to different dialects and language and different forms of the same word or morpheme in different contexts? How can we account for common patterns in diverse languages, such as segment inventories and phonotactics?
How is speech acquired as a first language and as a subsequent language?
How is sound associated with meaning?
How can we ameliorate communication disorders?
What is language disorder
What factors contribute to phonological changes?
What new methods can we use in phonology?
Where do phonologists acquire information?
What is the way phonology going to be changed?
How did language and speech arise or evolve in our species? Why is the vocal apparatus different as a function of the age and sex of the speaker? What is the relation, if any, between human speech and non-human communication?
What are phonological universals?
How is language and its parts, including words and morphemes, represented in the mind of the speaker; how is this representation accessed and used? How can we account for the variation in the phonetic shape of these elements as a function of context and speaking style?
How, physically and physiologically, does speech work---the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?
Why and how does pronunciation change over time, thus giving rise to different dialects and language and different forms of the same word or morpheme in different contexts? How can we account for common patterns in diverse languages, such as segment inventories and phonotactics?
How is speech acquired as a first language and as a subsequent language?
How is sound associated with meaning?
How can we ameliorate communication disorders?
What is language disorder
What factors contribute to phonological changes?
What new methods can we use in phonology?
Where do phonologists acquire information?
What is the way phonology going to be changed?
Important Questions in Phonology for Me
8 questions in our textbook
1. How is language and its parts, including words and morphemes, represented in the mind of the speaker; how is this representation accessed and used? How can we account for the variation in the phonetic shape of these elements as a function of context and speaking style?
2. How, physically and physiologically, does speech work---the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?
3. Why and how does pronunciation change over time, thus giving rise to different dialects and language and different forms of the same word or morpheme in different contexts? How can we account for common patterns in diverse languages, such as segment inventories and phonotactics?
4. How can we ameliorate communication disorders?
5. How can the functions of speech be enhanced and amplified, for example, to give permanency to ephemeral speech, to permit communication over great distances, and to permit communication with machines using speech?
6. How is speech acquired as a first language and as a subsequent language?
7. How is sound associated with meaning?
8. How did language and speech arise or evolve in our species? Why is the vocal apparatus different as a function of the age and sex of the speaker? What is the relation, if any, between human speech and non-human communication?
My 8 questions ( 1.2.3 for the questions in our textbook, (1)(2)(3) for my questions)
(1) What are phonological universals?
1. 2. 3. 6. 7. are relevant to my question (1) because
Asking questions 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 in our textbook enables one to draw inference of language universal.
8. is relevant to my question (1) because
Language universal could be a sub-question of 8.
(2) What is language disorder?
4 is relevant to (2) because
One should ask (2) first before move to 4.
(3) How phonology involve into its current state?
All questions are relevant to (3) because
The changes of phonology have much to do with our pursuing answers of all questions in our textbook.
(this one is relevant to (8))
(4) What new methods can we use in phonology?
This one is relevant to all questions because
New method could be applied to get those answers.
(It is also relevant to (7))
(5) What factors contribute to phonological changes?
This one is relevant to 1. 2. 3.
(6) Where do phonologists acquire information?
(7) What other field can phonology apply?
This one is relevant to all questions because
New method could be applied to get those answers.
(It is also relevant to (4))
(8) What’s the way phonology going to be changed?
All questions are relevant to (8) because
The changes of phonology have much to do with our pursuing answers of all questions in our textbook.
(this one is relevant to (3))
Questions (1) (2) (3) (5) (8) overlap those in our textbook. (4) and (7) are relevant to questions in our textbook, but they are not overlapping.
1. How is language and its parts, including words and morphemes, represented in the mind of the speaker; how is this representation accessed and used? How can we account for the variation in the phonetic shape of these elements as a function of context and speaking style?
2. How, physically and physiologically, does speech work---the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?
3. Why and how does pronunciation change over time, thus giving rise to different dialects and language and different forms of the same word or morpheme in different contexts? How can we account for common patterns in diverse languages, such as segment inventories and phonotactics?
4. How can we ameliorate communication disorders?
5. How can the functions of speech be enhanced and amplified, for example, to give permanency to ephemeral speech, to permit communication over great distances, and to permit communication with machines using speech?
6. How is speech acquired as a first language and as a subsequent language?
7. How is sound associated with meaning?
8. How did language and speech arise or evolve in our species? Why is the vocal apparatus different as a function of the age and sex of the speaker? What is the relation, if any, between human speech and non-human communication?
My 8 questions ( 1.2.3 for the questions in our textbook, (1)(2)(3) for my questions)
(1) What are phonological universals?
1. 2. 3. 6. 7. are relevant to my question (1) because
Asking questions 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 in our textbook enables one to draw inference of language universal.
8. is relevant to my question (1) because
Language universal could be a sub-question of 8.
(2) What is language disorder?
4 is relevant to (2) because
One should ask (2) first before move to 4.
(3) How phonology involve into its current state?
All questions are relevant to (3) because
The changes of phonology have much to do with our pursuing answers of all questions in our textbook.
(this one is relevant to (8))
(4) What new methods can we use in phonology?
This one is relevant to all questions because
New method could be applied to get those answers.
(It is also relevant to (7))
(5) What factors contribute to phonological changes?
This one is relevant to 1. 2. 3.
(6) Where do phonologists acquire information?
(7) What other field can phonology apply?
This one is relevant to all questions because
New method could be applied to get those answers.
(It is also relevant to (4))
(8) What’s the way phonology going to be changed?
All questions are relevant to (8) because
The changes of phonology have much to do with our pursuing answers of all questions in our textbook.
(this one is relevant to (3))
Questions (1) (2) (3) (5) (8) overlap those in our textbook. (4) and (7) are relevant to questions in our textbook, but they are not overlapping.
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